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[GREEN FUND BOOK, No. 5.] 



BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES: 



A HAND-BOOK 



FOR USE IN 



SEMINARIES, SABBATH-SCHOOLS, FAMILIES AND BY ALL 
STUDENTS OF THE BIBLE. 



EDWIN CONE BISSELL, D.D., 

PROFESSOR IK HARTFORD THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY. 



QMiti) Numerous Illustrations anfc Cafiles. 




PHILADELPHIA : 
THE AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION, 

1122 CHESTNUT STREET. 
NEW YORK: 10 BIBLE HOUSE. 

1888. 



V 



\ 



s 



THE JOHN C. GREEN FUND BOOKS. 



This volume has been prepared and issued under the provisions 
of the John C. Green Income Fund. The fund was founded in 
1877, with the cordial concurrence of Mrs. Green, by Kobert Lenox 
Kennedy, on behalf of the residuary legatees of John C. Green. 
Among other things, it is provided by the deeds of gift and of trust 
that one sixth of the net interest and income of this fund shall be 
set aside, and whenever the same shall amount to one thousand dol- 
lars, the Board of Officers and Managers of the American Sunday- 
School Union shall apply the income " for the purpose of aiding 
them in securing a Sunday-school literature of the highest order of 
merit." This may be done " either by procuring works upon a given 
subject germane to the objects of the society, to be written or com- 
piled by authors of established reputation and known ability, . . . 
or by offering premiums for manuscripts suitable for publication by 
said Union, in accordance with the purposes and objects of its insti- 
tution, ... in such form and manner as the Board of Officers and 
Managers may determine." 

The premium plan is to be followed at least once out of every 
three times. 

It is further required that the manuscripts procured under this 
fund shall become the exclusive property of the American Sunday- 
School Union, with no charge for copyright to purchasers of the 
book, it being the intention of the trust to reduce the selling price 
of works issued under the provisions of the fund. 

Copyright, 1888, by the American Sunday-School Union. 



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I PREFACE. 



That branch of biblical science known as antiquities has to 
do with the peoples among whom the Bible arose, especially 
with the Hebrews. In this work the subject is made to refer 
chiefly to the social, civil and religious conditions of the Hebrew 
people in biblical times. The antiquities of other historically- 
related peoples are considered only as far as they shed light on 
those of the Hebrews or otherwise contribute to a clearer under- 
standing of the Bible. 

The advantages of a knowledge of their antiquities to a stu- 
dent of the Scriptures cannot well be overrated. It serves to 
place him in the position of one who lived in the times when 
they first appeared and in the lands where they were actually 
written. 

My aim has been to present the principal facts of biblical 
antiquities in the stricter sense, together with some of their 
moral and religious bearings, and to show their true place and 
significance in the plan and history of redemption. No attempt 
has been made to treat largely of the geography or topography, 
the political or natural history, of the lands of the Bible, each 
of which themes would require a volume. 

The book has been prepared for popular use. Where Hebrew 
and Greek terms are used, they have been given in their simplest 
phonetic form. The latest accepted results of scientific study 
have been stated without detailing processes. Citations from 
authorities in general have been sparingly given ; those from 



IV PREFACE. 

the Scriptures are full aud explicit, and have been usually taken 
from the Revised Version.* 

It is proper to express my sense of indebtedness to the Com- 
mittee of the American Sunday-School Union, whose co-opera- 
tion has greatly aided in the preparation of the work. The 
fitting illustrations and the attractive form which the society 
has given to the book will add much to its usefulness. That it 
may win some measure of the favor accorded to the excellent 
work of Dr. Nevin, which it succeeds, and be honored of God 
in accomplishing a similar service in his kingdom, is my most 
earnest hope. 

Edwin Cone Bissell. 

Hartford Theological Seminary, 
March, 1888. 

* For a partial list of authorities, see p. viii. 



CONTENTS. 



[The figures after the sub-topics indicate the page.] 



Preface, iii 

List of Authorities, viii 

PART I.— DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

CHAPTER I. 

Dwellings and their Appointments, 11 

Booths, 11 — Cave Dwellings, 13 — Tent, 15 — House, 18 — Architecture, 
20— Door, 23— Windows, 24— Eoof, 24— Furniture, 26— Chairs, 28— 
Tables, 28 — Lamps, 29 — Caravansary, 30— Cities and Villages, 31 — 
Gates, Streets, 32 — Bazaar, 34— Water Supply, 35. 

CHAPTER II. 
The Family, 37 

Children, 37 — Marriage, 40— Divorce, 46 — Concubinage, 48 — Woman, 
Social Position, 50— Social Life, 52— Games, 54 — Servants, 55— Death 
and Burial, 58. 

CHAPTER III. 

Food and Meals, . . 64 

Preparations of Grain, 64— Baking, 67 — Milk, 69 — Honey, 70 — Lo- 
custs, 70— Fish, 71— Game, 72— Vegetables, 72— Vine and Grapes, 73 
—Fig, 74— Apple and other Fruits, 75— Oil, 75— Nuts, 76— Eggs, 76— 
Animal Food, 76— Cooking Animal Food, 79— Customs at Table, 80— 
Festive Meals, 84. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Dress and Ornament, 80 

Material for Clothing, 86 — Forms of Dress for Males, 88 — Woman's 
Dress, 90— The Girdle, 92— Turban, 93— Sandals, 94— Ornaments, 97— 
Perfumery, 103— The Hair, 104— Pigments, 105. 

CHAPTER V. 
Pastoral Life and Agriculture, 107 

Sheep, 107— Shepherd, 109— The Fold, 110— Goats, 111— Cattle, 112— 
Horse, 113— Camel, 114— Mule, 115— Ass, 116— Agriculture, 118— Sab- 
batic Year, 119— Grains of Palestine, 120 — Seasons, .121— Plough and 
Yoke, 121— Preparation of Soil, 122— Harvesting, 123— Threshing, 124 
—Winnowing, 125— Grapes, 126— Oiive, 127 — Gardening, 12a— Met- 
aphors, 129. 



VI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEK VI. 

PAGE 

Science and Arts, 130 

Heavenly Bodies, 130 — Earth, 131 — Reckoning, 131 — Divisions of Day 
and Night, 134— The Week, 135— The Month, 136— The Year, 138— 
Music, 139 — Musical Instruments, 142— Art of "Writing, 147 — Lan- 
guages of the Bible, 148— Writing Materials, 150— Hebrew Poetry, 151 
— Medical Art, 154 — Mechanic Arts, 155 — Workers in Metals, 157 — 
Other Artisans, 159. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Trade and Commerce, 162 

Palestine not suited to Commerce, 162 — Trade under the Kings, 163 — 
Trade after Time of Christ, 165— Roads, 166— Travelling, 168— Wagons, 
168 — Palanquin, 169 — Journeying by Water, 170 — Merchant Vessel, 
172 — Navigation in New Testament Times, 173— Money, 174 — Hebrew 
Money, 175— Coined Money, 177— Worth of Money, 178— Means for 
Weighing, 179 — Measures of Length, 181 — Measures of Liquids, 182 — 
Tables of Coins, Weights and Measures, 182, 183. 

PART II.— CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

CHAPTER VIII. 
The Government, 187 

The Eldership, 189 — Representative Government, 189 — Officers, 190— 
Judges, 191 — Levites, 192 — Laws in Earliest Period, 193 — Mosaic Laws, 
194— Kingdom, 195— King, 196— Succession, 197 — Royal Prerogative, 
197— Expenses, 199— Household, 199— Fall of Kingdoms, 201— Gov- 
ernment after Exile, 201 — The Maccabees, 204 — Herods, 204 — Roman 
Citizenship, 205 — Civil Regulations in Time of Christ, 206 — Great 
Sanhedrin, 207— Tribute to Foreign Powers, 208. 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Administration of Justice, 210 

Earlier Legal Processes, 210— Changes, 211 — In Time of Jehoshaphat, 
212— In and After the Exile, 213— In Time of Christ, 214— Courts of 
Law, 214— Place of Trial, 215— No use of Torture, 216— Casting Lots, 
217— Decisions, 217— Methods of Sanhedrin, 218— Penalties, 218— 
Capital Offences, 220 — Punishment, how Administered, 220 — Cruci- 
fixion, 221— Homioide, 222— Mutilation, 223— Flogging, 223— Fine, 224 
— Imprisonment, 226 — The Ban, 227 — Laws about Property, 228 — 
Products of Year of Jubilee, 230 — Ownership of Land, 231— Security 
of Property, 232. 

CHAPTER X. 

The Army, 234 

War against Canaanites, 235 — Composition of Army, 235 — Israelitish 
Army in Canaan, 237 — In Royal Period, 238— Roman Army, 240— 
Preliminaries of Battle, 240 — Treatment of Prisoners, 241 — Weapons, 
242— Shield, 242— Helmet, 243— Armor, 245— Bow, 246— Sling, 248— 
Sword, 248— Spear and Javelin, 249— Battle-axe, 249— Chariot, 249— 
Siege and Defence of Cities, 251. 



CONTENTS. Vll 

PART III.— SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 
CHAPTER XL 

PAGE 

The Sacred Seasons, 257 

The Sabbath, 259— Passover, 260— Paschal Controversy, 264— Feast of 
Unleavened Bread, 267 — Feast of Weeks, 268 — Feast of Tabernacles, 
271— The New Moon, 275— Day of Atonement, 277— For Azazel, 279— 
Puriru, 280— Feast of Dedication, 281— Table of Hebrew Feasts, 283. 

CHAPTER XII. 
Sanctuaries of Israel, 284 

Tabernacle, 284— Court of, 285— Altar, Laver, 286— Tabernacle Proper, 
286— Holy of Holies, 289— Ark, 291— Altar of Incense, 292— Table of 
Shew-bread, 292— Candlestick, 293— Temple of Solomon, 297— Fur- 
niture of, 301— Temple of Zerubbabel, 302— Temple of Herod, 304— 
The Synagogue, 310. 

CHAPTER XIII. 
The Priesthood, 315 

Prerequisites for Priesthood, 316 — Consecration, 317 — Duties of Priests, 
319 — Classes of Priests and Levites, 320 — Dress of Priests, 321 — Dress 
of High Priest, 323 — Urim and Thummim, 326 — Maintenance of Priests 
and Levites, 328 — Levitical Cities, 332. 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Sacrifices and Offerings, 335 

Vegetable Offerings, what they Included, 336 — Animal Sacrifices, how 
Presented, 337— Burnt Offerings, 340— Peace Offerings, 341— Sin Offer- 
ing, 342— Trespass Offering, 345 — Classes of Vegetable Offerings, 348 — 
Daily Sacrifices, 350— Ceremonial Purifications, Leper, etc., 353— 
Vows, 358— The Nazarite, 360. 

CHAPTER XV. 
Forms of Idolatry Noticed in the Bible, . . . . 363 

Teraphim, 364— Golden Calf, 365— High Places, 366— Brazen Serpent, 
367— Baal, 368— Ashtoreth, 370— Chemosh, 371— Tammuz, 372— Rim- 
mon, 373 — Dagon, 373 — Nebo, 374 — Remphan, 374 — Jupiter and Mer- 
cury, 375— Diana, 376 — Magical Arts, Divination, etc., 377. 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Sects Among the Jews, 380 

Samaritanism, 380— The Scribe, 382— Pharisees, 384— Sadducees, 385— 
Essenes, 388— Therapeutae, 391— Proselytes, 391. 

Index of Scripture Texts 397 

General Index, 410 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 

In addition to the Scriptures and the Apocrypha, the Targums, the writings 
of Philo and Josephus, the Talmud and earlier rabbinical works, Greek and 
Roman classical writers, the monumental remains of the East, and the accounts 
of travellers and explorers there, are tbe principal sources of our knowledge of 
biblical antiquities. The apocryphal and other Jewish literature which arose 
after the close of the Old Testament canon, though lacking the authenticity of 
biblical books, is not thereby unfitted to be a valid source of information on 
national customs. The writings of Josephus and Philo, as well as the works of 
rabbinical writers, are to be used with caution when not well supported. 

For the antiquities of Egypt there are the standard works of Champollion 
(Paris, 1837), Wilkinson (London, 1878), Lane (London, 1871), Lepsius (Berlin, 
1849), Brugsch (London, 1881), Ebers (Leipzig, 1881), and the several reports and 
publications of the Egyptian Exploration Fund ; for those of Assyria and Bab- 
ylon : Botta (Paris, 1849), Layard (London, 1852), Lenormant (Paris, at different 
times), Oppert (Paris, 1865), Schrader (Giessen, 1883), Rawlinson's works (Lon- 
don and New York), Smith (London, 1865), Transactions of the Society for Bib- 
lical Archaeology and Records of the Past (12 vols. ; London, Bagsters). 

Among the numerous volumes of travel and exploration in Palestine and Syria 
may be mentioned Robinson (Boston, 1856), Ritter (Berlin, 1848-55), Lynch 
(Philadelphia, 1849), Thompson (New York, 1880), Van Lennep (New York, 
1875), Palmer (New York, 1872), Conder (London, 1878), Schaft (London and 
New York, 1880), Bartlett (New York, 1879), Merrill (New York, 1881), Porter 
(New York, 1873), Baedeker (Leipzig, 1876-78), Trumbull (New York, 1884), be- 
sides the publications of the British Palestine Exploration Fund, the American 
Palestine Exploration Society and the Deutscher Palestina-Verein. 

Of books treating directly of the antiquities of the Bible and valuable for one 
reason or another are worthy of notice — Jahn (Wien, 1817), Rosenmueller (Leip- 
zig, 1823-31), De Wette (Leipzig, 1864), Ewald (Goettingen, 1866), Scholz (Bonn, 
1834), Haneberg (Muenchen, 1869), Saalschuetz (Konigsberg, 1855-56), Jennings 
(London, 1825), Roskoff (Wien, 1857), Keil (Frankfort, 1875), Kinzler (Stuttgart, 
1884), Schegg (Freiburg, 1886), and a number of works by Edersheim. 

The following monographs will be found suggestive and useful : Faber, Von 
den vcrschiedencn Wohnungsarten (Halle, 1873) ; Michaelis, Comm. on the Laivs 
of Moses (London, 1814) ; Hartmann, Die Hebraerin am Putztische (Amsterdam, 
1809); Saalschuetz, Das Mosaische Recht (Berlin, 1848); Baehr, Symbolik des 
Mosaischen Cultus (Heidelberg, 1837-39, 1874) ; Mielziner, The Jetcish Law of 
Marriage and Divorce (Cincinnati, 1884) ; Kuebel, Die Sociale und Volkswirth- 
schaftliche Gesetzgebung des Alten Testaments (Wiesbaden, 1870) ; Delitzsch, Jew- 
ish Artisan Life (London, Bagsters) ; Herzfeld, Geschichte des Altjucdischcn Han- 
dels (Leipzig, 1863-65) ; Schuerer, Geschichte des Juedischen Volkes im Zeitalter 
Jesu Christi (Leipzig, 1886) ; Kamphausen and Fries on the Tabernacle (articles 
in the Theol. Studien und Kritiken for 1858-59) ; also works of Riggenbach 
(Basel, 1867), Brown (Edinburgh, 1872), and Paine (Boston, 1885), on the same 
subject; Huellmann, Staatsverfassung der Israel-item, (Leipzig, 1834); Lownuin, 
Civil Government of the Hebrews (London, 1740); Wines, Commentaries on the 
Laws of the Hebrews (Philadelphia, 1859) ; Loew, Graphische Requisiten und Er- 
zeugnisse bei den Juden, etc. (Leipzig, 1870-71) ; George, Die Aeltesten Juedischen 
Fe'ste (Berlin, 1835); Green, The Hebrew Feasts (New York, 1885); Kurtz, Der 
Alttestamentliche Opfercwltus (Mitau, 1862); The Lord's Day, by Prof. A. E. 
Waffle (Philadelphia, 1885) ; Four Essays on the Sabbath (Edinburgh, 1886). 

Among Bible dictionaries and cyclopedias may be noted those of Smith, Winer, 
Kitto, Fairbairn, Schenkel, McClintock and Strong, Ayre, Fausset, Schaflf, Her- 
zog and Plitt, Hamburger and Riehm. The last, in addition to valuable articles 
by the editor on pertinent themes contains others by Delitzsch, Baur, Ebers, 
Kamphausen, Schlottmann, Schroedcr, Schuerer and other eminent scholars. 

For the history of the Jews there are available works of Ewald (Goettingen, 

1864-68), Kurtz (Berlin, 1864), Graetz (Leipzig, from 1874), Milman (London, 

1863), Stanley (London and New York, 1883), Koehler (Erlangen, 1865), Ihineker 

(Berlin, 1880), Hengstenberg (Berlin, 1870), Wellhausen (Berlin, 1868) and others. 

viii 



PART L 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



CHAPTER I. 

DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 

1. The Hebrew conception of the house was twofold. It referred 
either to the dwelling or to the family that occupied it. In the 
Scriptures, the principal emphasis, as might be expected, has been 
placed upon the family. The races peopling western Asia have 
always been divided into two great classes in respect to their dwell- 
ings. The one class has been nomadic, living in tents and having 
cattle; the other has built, and preferred to occupy, permanent 
habitations. This distinction ruled in the beginnings of human his- 
tory as it now does throughout the Orient. Cain is said to have 
built a city; while Jabal was "the father of such as dwell in 
tents." 1 In eastern lands the nomad has always been held as, in 
every respect, the equal of the citizen. Abraham's wandering life 
did not detract from the honor with which he was regarded by rep- 
resentatives of the great Hittite empire. 2 On the other hand, the 
present Shah of Persia is a nomad by descent, and the tribe to which 
he belongs is one of the chief supports of his throne. 

The Hebrews, in different periods of their history, belonged now 
to one and now to the other of these classes. The patriarchs led 
much the same kind of life as that of the modern Bedouin of higher 
rank. During the sojourn in Egypt, it is likely the Israelites occu- 
pied permanent dwellings. 3 In the wilderness, they reverted again to 
life in tents. The booth is nowhere mentioned in this period, but 
is doubtless to be included under the general designation of tent. 
On their occupation of Canaan, the conquerors naturally inhabited, 
to a considerable extent, the cities and villages of the conquered 
peoples, and became fixed resideuts of the lands, which, as families 
and tribes, they cultivated. The Mosaic legislation contemplates 
throughout an agricultural, rather than a pastoral, population. 
Still, in the long period of defection, lasting from the days of Joshua 
to the establishment of the kingdom, there was a marked tendency 
to return to the habits and modes of life of the early patriarchs. 

2. The Booth. — In describing the various kinds of dwellings 
mentioned in the Bible, we begin with the booth. It was doubt- 

i Gen. 4 : 17, 20. 2 Gen. 23 : 5, 6. 3 Ex. 12 : 4, 7. 



12 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

less one of the most primitive forms of human habitation. It is 
impossible, however, to affirm that the booth historically antedates 
the tent. Much less is it safe to assume that men inhabited caves 
at first, and that this was due to the low grade of their intelligence. 
It is probable that the three forms of habitation were all known to 
earlier peoples, and in use by them according as they found one or 
another more convenient. 

In its primitive rudeness the booth approaches so near to the lair of 
the wild beast that the same original word was sometimes employed 
to designate it. 1 And yet, so well adapted is the structure to their 
mode of life that it continues to be not a little used by the nomads 
of the East. The ordinary booth of the Bible seems to have been 
constructed entirely of the leafy boughs of trees. The stoutest of 
them were firmly planted in the earth to form the walls, and over 
these the lighter ones were deftly woven together to serve as roof. 
Booths were of all sizes, from those capable of holding but a single 
person 2 to such as were used for sheltering the largest herds of cat- 
tle. Jacob, it is said, on his way from Padan-aram, erected booths 
at a certain place for his numerous cattle. Hence the name " Suc- 
coth" — that is, booths — which, from this circumstance, has come 
down to us in the sacred records. 3 Once in the history of King 
David, while the siege of Rabbah of the Ammonites was in progress, 
it is noted that the "ark and Israel and Judah" abode in booths. 4 
Military campaigns being -undertaken in summer, the booth, with 
its leafy covering, was a pleasant change from the heated atmos- 
phere of the tent. 

There are several instances in the Scriptures where the booth is 
made the basis of a poetic image. Much of the beauty and fitness 
of the trope is lost when this fact is forgotten or becomes obscured 
in the translation. The prophet Amos, for example, predicted that 
the day would come when the booth (tabernacle) of David that had 
fallen down would be raised up again. 5 It was a bold figure to 
liken the glory of David's house not only to a booth but to a booth 
prostrate on the earth. 

3. A special kind of booth Avas that of the watchman in vine- 
yards, fruit orchards and grain fields. Job says of the wicked that 
he "buildeth his house as the moth, and as a booth which the keeper 
maketh." 6 The watchman's booth was generally reared on an ele- 
vation from which the fields to be cared for could be readily scon. 

ijob 38:40; Ps. 10:9; Jer. 25:38. 2j nahl:5. 3 Gen. 33 ; 17. * 2 Sam. 11:11. 

* Amos 9: 11. « Job 27: 18. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 13 

Unless it differed from the modern style, which is unlikely, it was 
built of four poles stuck in the ground in the form of a square, 
and about four feet apart. At nearly the same distance from the 
ground cross-sticks were fastened to these supports, and upon them 
boards were laid. (See cut, p. 10.) Here was spread the simple couch 
of the watchman, and here, for the most part, was his home during 
the summer. A second covered platform was made a few feet higher 
up when a wider range of vision was desired. The top only was 
covered. The boughs of trees were generally used for the purpose, 
though sometimes the shelter was made more effective by means of 
mats. It is to a structure of this kind that the prophet Isaiah gives 
the name of " lodge." * Its insecure character is well illustrated in 
another passage of this prophet, where he says of the earth that 
under the judgments of God it shall "stagger like a drunken man" 
and " be moved to and fro like a hut." 2 

4. The tower mentioned in Isaiah 5 : 2, used for a like purpose 
as the watchman's lodge, was a somewhat similar, but a much more 
durable, structure, being often built of stone and of much larger size. 
(See illustration, p. 10.) It still bears in modern Greek the name 
pyrgos, which was used by our Lord in speaking of it in the Gospel. 3 
Not infrequently it rose to the height of forty feet, and was provided at 
its top with roomy, well -ventilated apartments. Here the family of 
the owner found a much more comfortable home during the warm 
months than in the crowded town. The Turk uniformly applies to 
the structure a word which means " country house." It is doubtless 
one of the more elaborate buildings of this sort to wmich our Lord 
refers in Luke 14 : 28. 

5. Cave Dwellings. — There is no evidence that, in any period 
of their history, the people of Israel ever dwelt permanently in 
caves. They often, even down to the date of the Roman conquest, 
made temporary use of them, especially in times of persecution and 
war. The limestone hills of Palestine and Syria are exceedingly 
favorable to the formation of fissures and caverns of every descrip- 
tion. In the Palestine of to-day, as at Engedi, Eleutheropolis, in 
the region about Hebron and Gadara and on the slopes of Carmel, 
such caverns not only abound but are in considerable use, particu- 
larly during the hot season. The aucient Horites, who inhabited 
Seir before the Edomites, seem to have been proper troglodytes, or 
cave-dwellers, as their name imports. Other proper names of the 
Bible are equally significant in this direction. Hauran* indicates a 

i Isa. 1:8. 2 i sa . 24 : 20. 3 Matt. 21 : 33 ; Mark 12 : 1. * Ezek. 47 : 16, 18. 



14 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

land of caverns. Beth-horon 1 means "house of caverns;" and 
Horonaim, 2 "two caverns." 

Underground places used as dwellings, or for other purposes, were 
by no means natural caves in all cases, but were often excavated in 
the solid rock at great expense of time and labor. About twenty- 
five years ago, Dr. Wetzstein, a distinguished German, discovered 
an underground city at ed-Der'aah in western Hauran. It has re- 
cently been explored under the direction of the Palestine Explora- 
tion Fund. 

A passage four feet wide leads down to the gate of the city. The 
gate consists of a massive stone, six inches in thickness, which still 
swings on its ancient stone hinges. The city is made up of an in- 
definite number of chambers or dwellings in the solid rock, com- 
municating with one another by means of narrow passages. Venti- 
lation is provided for by air-shafts, many of which, in process of 
time, have become closed up. The weak limestone roofs are, in 
some instances, supported by strong pillars. The presence of 
troughs, mangers, and the like, shows that animals as well as men 
found a home here. 

Lot had his dwelling in a cave after the destruction of Sodom. 3 
During the wars of the Conquest, we read of five kings taking 
refuge at one time in the cave of Makkedah from the pursuit of 
Joshua's army. 4 Subsequently, in the period of the Judges, we 
learn that " because of Midian the children of Israel made them 
the dens which are in the mountains, and the caves, and the 
strong holds." 5 The same was true while the Philistines overran 
Israel, prior to their subjugation by Saul and David. 6 The hunted 
David found in these places his most secure retreat. 7 Elijah fled 
to a cave in Horeb before the fury of Jezebel. 8 In the same great 
persecution the faithful Obadiah hid a hundred prophets of the 
Lord, by fifties, in a cave. 9 

6. There are numerous allusions and poetic images to be found in 
the Bible, which, to say the least, are greatly obscured unless the 
fact is kept in mind that natural and artificial caves were much re- 
sorted to in seasons of want, danger and discouragement. In Job, 
for example, the depths of distress are represented as reached by 
those who " are wet with the showers of the mountains, and embrace 
the rock for want of a shelter." 10 In another place he speaks of 
men who are "gaunt with want and famine; they gnaw the dry 

i Josh. 10: 10. *Ibr. 15:5. 3 Gen 19: HO. * Josh. 10:16. *Judg. 6:2. «1 Sam. 13:6. 
M Sam. 24:3-10. » i Kings 19 : 9, 13. » 1 Kings 18 : 4, 13. 10 Job 24 : 8. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 15 

ground, in the gloom of wasteness and desolation. ... In the clefts of 
the valleys must they dwell, in holes of the earth and of the rocks." 1 
The prophets also make considerable rhetorical use of this cus- 
tom. Isaiah, describing the coming of Jehovah in judgment, says 
that " men shall go into the caves of the rocks, and into the holes 
of the earth, from before the terror of the Lord, and from the glory 
of his majesty, when he ariseth to shake mightily the earth." 2 
The same image is employed in the Revelation. 3 In the Epistle 
to the Hebrews the persecuted saints of old, " of whom the world 
was not worthy," are spoken of as going about in sheepskins and 
goatskins, and as "wandering in deserts and mountains and caves, 
and the holes of the earth." 4 The inaccessibility and security of 
such places is referred to in many a passage. The Psalmist prays 
to Jehovah, "Be thou to me a rock of habitation, whereunto I may 
continually resort." 5 

7. The fact that caves as well as shadowy groves were often se- 
lected for idolatrous worship is recognized by the prophet Isaiah : 
"Are ye not children of transgression, a seed of falsehood, ye that 
inflame yourselves among the oaks, under every green tree; that 
slay the children in the valleys, under the clefts of the rocks?" 6 It 
is matter of interest that some of the oldest cloisters of the East 
appear to have had their origin from the custom of living in caves. 
To some single hermit who was thus spending his life, others gradu- 
ally united themselves. The cave was accordingly enlarged by the 
addition of separate cells to accommodate them. Little by little 
there arose around the old grotto or cavern, and always including it 
as its sacred centre, a common place of prayer, a church, and, 
finally, a cloister or monastery. 

8. The Tent. — According to the Bible, the custom of living in 
tents is of the highest antiquity. It is traced back to Jabal, who 
was a son of Lamech. 7 It did not, as it would seem, precede, as to 
matter of time or conception, the more stable dwelling. From the 
first there were movable as well as fixed abodes, and those who de- 
cidedly preferred the one to the other. There are peoples in the 
East who, as far as known, have never been engaged in anything 
else than strictly pastoral pursuits, or occupied any dwellings but 
tents. In some cases a peculiar form of tent, as distinct in style 
from those in common use as the modern dwelling-house is from that 
of two centuries ago, has been adopted by a people and held its 

i Job 30: 3, 6. 2 Isa. 2 : 19 ; cf. Zech. 14 : 5. 3 R e v. 6 : 15, 16. ^Heb. 11:38. 5 p s . 7i : 3 ; 
cf. Cant. 2 : 14 ; Isa. 33 : 16 ; Jer. 48 : 28 \ 49 : 16. 6 i sa . 57 . 5, 7 Gen. 4 : 20. 



16 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

place against every innovation for a millennium. As already inti- 
mated, it would be erroneous to suppose that for a people to lead a 
wandering, pastoral life implies, in itself, a lower stage of civiliza- 
tion. This cannot have been the case when Abraham and his de- 
scendants pastured their flocks in ancient Canaan. It is as little 
true in the same countries to-day. For hundreds of years the only 
sanctuary of Israel was a simple tent-structure, and from this the 
magnificent temple of Solomon and those that succeeded it derived 
their peculiar style. 

9. Cloth for tents was usually manufactured from the coarse hair 
of goats or camels. The name "house of hair" is given to the tent 
by the modern Arab. When goat's hair was used for this purpose 
the black or brown color was preferred. 1 If of good quality, cloth 
of this kind was impervious to the rain, and as a protection from 
the sun's rays superior to the material commonly used for tents 
among ourselves. Tents were also covered with skins. 2 The tents 
on which Paul wrought were doubtless made of Cilician hair-cloth, 
which was highly prized for the purpose, and were probably in- 
tended for the use of the Roman soldiers. 3 After being woven into 
cloth of the required width, stitched together and provided with 
cords and loops, the tent-cloth was spread over poles of about the 
height of a man and securely fastened to the ground by tent-pins. 

10. The size of the tent varied according to taste and require- 
ment. The space between the border of the tent-covering and the 
ground was covered, if desired, by curtains of the same material, or 
by mats. Tents were sometimes round in form, but more often rect- 
angular, presenting, when spread, the appearance of the hull of a 
ship turned bottom upwards. The interior was divided into sepa- 
rate apartments, generally two or three, by means of other curtains 
fastened to the parallel rows of poles by which the structure was 
supported. One portion was appropriated to the men, another to 
the women, and if there was a third, it would be most likely set 
apart for the servants and the cattle. Separate tents for wives and 
children would be a mark of wealth and rank. 4 The word "alcove," 
coming down to us through the Spanish and the Arabic, goes back 
for its idea to the old tent structure, and its root is still preserved in 
the Hebrew word rendered "pavilion" in Num. 25 : 8, and in the 
margin " alcove." 

11. The furniture of the tent was of the simplest description. It 
rarely went beyond a few mats, serving at once for chairs, couch 

1 Cant. 1 • 5. '•* Ex. 35 : 23. ^ Acts 18 : 3. « Gen. '24 : 67 ; 31 : 83, 34. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 17 

and table, a hammer for driving tent-pins, a hand-mill for grinding 
the food, a few copper pans, and possibly a lamp. Other articles 
were, of course, often found in a teut, but formed no part of its 
proper furniture. There might be, for example, sacks of grain and 
other sacks used in loading camels, the camel's pack-saddle and re- 
maining outfit, 1 distended skins containing water or curd, leathern 
buckets for drawing water, bowls for receiving milk, and, if there 
were horses, their feeding-bags and tackling. In the tent of a mod- 
ern Arab, means for grinding coffee would be thought indispensable ; 
possibly, even the stones on which the dish containing it is placed 
over the fire. When a fire was needed, it was built in a hole in the 
ground within the enclosure of the tent. The smoke was left to find 
its way outside as best it could. 

12. When a number of tents were pitched near together they were 
placed in a certain determined order. If they were the tents of 
herdsmen or shepherds, they were generally arranged in a circle, 
the flocks and herds finding protection in the enclosed area. The 
Hebrews had special names for such collections of tents, usually 
rendered "encampments" or "villages" in the revised English ver- 
sion. 2 It was probably a small number of shepherds, or those with- 
out tents, who were keeping watch in turn over their flocks by night 
when the angels appeared to them with the announcement of the 
Saviour's birth. 

13. The figurative use of the scenes of tent life is very common 
in the Scriptures. The most widely-employed Hebrew word for 
removing, journeying from place to place, referred originally to the 
drawing of the tent-pins. 3 Similarly the apostle Paul speaks of the 
bodily frame as a tabernacle or tent which may be expected to dis- 
solve or suddenly disappear. 4 So, too, King Hezekiah, in his sick- 
ness, spoke of his life as removed and carried away from him like a 
shepherd's tent. 5 The prophet Isaiah, picturing the Church of his 
day as still inhabiting movable dwellings, addressed it in the inspir- 
ing words : " Enlarge the place of thy tent, and let them stretch 
forth the curtains of thy habitations ; spare not : lengthen thy cords, 
and strengthen thy stakes." 6 The Psalmist, on the other hand, con- 
ceived of the whole earth as but the floor of a tent of which the sky 
was the pavilion. 7 Even the tent-pin was not overlooked. Of the 
servant of the Lord it is said in prophecy 8 that he shall be fastened 
" as a nail [tent-pin] in a sure place." With a similar metaphor the 

i Gen. 31 : 34. 2 Gen. 25 : 16 ; Deut. 2 : 23 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 54 ; Ps. 69 : 25 ; Isa. 22 : 23 ; cf. Zech. 
10:4. 3 Gen. 33:17. * 2 Cor. 5:1. & Isa. 38 : 12. 6 Isa. 54: 2. 'Ps. 19:4. 8 Ezra 9: 8. 



18 DOMESTICS ANTIQUITIES. 

Preacher in Ecclesiastes brings his book to a close: "The words 
of the wise are as goads, and as nails [tent-pins] well fastened are 
the words of the masters of assemblies, which are given from one 
shepherd." 1 

14. The House. — Of ancient Hebrew architecture the Bible has 
little to say. In fact, a proper architecture can scarcely be said to 
have arisen among the Hebrews before the time of the early kings, 
about B.C. 1000. When it appeared, it differed but little from that 
of their neighbors, the Phoenicians, Assyrians and Egyptians. The 
earliest mention of permanent dwellings in the Bible is the statement 
that Cain built a city and named it Enoch, after the name of his son. 2 
Probably it consisted of a small collection of huts surrounded by a 
wall with a view to their defence against the " avenger of blood." 
The genuineness of the biblical narrative is here corroborated by the 
fact that the building of the first city is ascribed not to nomads but 
to agriculturists aud those pursuing the arts of life. 

15. Building Materials for Houses. — The materials used by 
the ancients for building purposes varied with the location and the 
object to be served. On the vast alluvial plains in the midst of 
which Babylon stood neither quarries of stone nor forests of trees 
were to be found. Accordingly, the material employed in building 
was necessarily bricks. These were generally dried in the sun, but 
sometimes, as now, burnt in kilns. Bitumen abounded in the region 
and was used as mortar. If we may trust the account of Herodotus, 
it was applied hot : " As fast as they dug the moat, the soil which 
they got from the cutting they made into bricks, and when a suffi- 
cient number were completed they baked the bricks in kilns. Then 
they set to building and began with the borders of the moat; after 
which they proceeded to construct the wall itself, using throughout 
for their cement hot bitumen, and interposing a layer of wattled 
reeds at every thirteenth course of the bricks." 3 

The account of the erection of the tower of Babel, found in Gen. 
11 : 3-5, is also very instructive as illustrating the mode of building 
in that early period : "And they said one to another, Go to, let us 
make brick, and burn them throughly. And they had brick for 
stone, and slime had they for mortar." In ancient Nineveh, ordi- 
nary clay mixed with stubble was used for bricks ; and from an 
incidental allusion in the prophecy of Nairn m we infer that prepared 
mortar and not bitumen was employed in the structure of its walls: 
" Draw thee water for the siege, strengthen thy fortresses s go into 

l Eccles. 12 : 11. 2 Gen. 4 : 17. a Herodotus 1 : 179. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 



19 



the clay, and tread the mortar, make strong the brick-kiln " [lay- 
hold of the brick-mold ?]. 1 

In Egypt sun-burnt bricks were chiefly used for building. Their 
durable quality is attested by the fact that, in many places, they 
still retain their form after a period of three thousand years. If 
they were to be exposed to much dampness, the precaution of first 
burniug them in a kiln was resorted to. Bricks made of the com- 
mon Nile mud, in distinction from clay, were found not to be suffi- 
ciently cohesive without the addition of stubble or straw. It is to 
this fact that allusion is made in the pathetic passage where the op- 
pressed Israelites complain that they must gather the needful stubble 
from the fields and yet deliver as usual " the tale of bricks." 2 One 
of the cities where the Israelites were employed was Pithom. Its 
ruins have recently been identified. As a matter of fact three kinds 
of bricks have been discovered there — some with stubble, some with 
straw and some without. Judging from the monuments, the process 
of manufacturing sun- 
dried bricks was much 
the same in ancient as in 
modern times. A shal- 
low pit was used for mix- 
ing the clay or mud. Into 
this was thrown the nec- 
essary amount of straw 
or stubble. The mixing 
was done with the feet. 3 
The prepared clay was 
carried in hods upon the 
shoulder. Possibly it is Captives making Ericks iu Egypt 

to this kind of labor that the Psalmist refers in the words, " I re- 
moved his shoulder from the burden: his hands were freed from the 
basket." 4 

In Palestine good building-stone abounded, and at an early period 
noble forests of trees. Bricks, however, were probably used to a 
limited extent, though considered inferior to hewn stone. 5 The 
prophet Isaiah especially reprobated in his time the practice of con- 
structing altars of bricks ; 6 and in many passages reference is made 
to the instability of buildings in a manner to suggest the poor quality 
of the materials used. 7 In the book of Job one of the most striking 




i Nah. 3 : 14. 2 Ex. 5 : 18. 3 Nah. 3:14. * Ps. 81 : G. 
cf. Ex. 20 : 25. 1 1sa. 30 : 13; Ezek. 13 : 10, 11 ; Amos G : 11. 



& 2 Sam. 12 : 31. oisa.9:13: 



20 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



images of human feebleness is found in the fact that men live in 
"houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust, which are crushed 
before the moth." l It was no difficult matter for those so disposed 
to break into houses constructed of sun-dried bricks. It is to this 
circumstance that our Lord alludes in the Sermon on the Mount 
when he dissuades from laying up treasures where "thieves break 
[lit. dig] through and steal." 2 Great care too, in such cases, needed 
to be taken with the foundations, he being the wise man who built 
his house, not on the sand, but on the rock. 3 That there were houses 
of a much finer quality built, especially in the times of the later 
kings, there is ample evidence. 4 

16. Style of Architecture. — The typical form of the eastern 

house is the quadrangle with an in- 
terior court around which the apart- 
ments are variously arranged. The 
poorer class of dwellings, which singly 
would not be adapted to this style of 
architecture, often seek to conform 
to it by ranging themselves in reg- 
ular form around a central court. 
This serves for all alike, and in 
the winter season becomes a con- 
venient place for the herdiug of 
cattle. Houses of the better sort, 
on the other hand, often consist of 
two or more stories, having apart- 
like our own, by 

doors and stairways and opening upon 
roomy corridors which extend around the entire court. The stair- 
ways conducting to the upper stories either start from the porch or 
from the interior court, and in some cases from both points. The roof 
is reached from the upper gallery by a single staircase. (See cut, p. 10.) 

17. To the exterior of his house an Oriental generally pays little 
attention. It appears from without mostly as blank walls, relieved 
only by the door and a high latticed window or two. Admission is 
gained to the interior through a porch. This is no unimportant fea- 
ture of the dwelling. Sometimes, instead of leading directly into 
the main court, a smaller court intervenes connected by a door with 
the larger. At other times the same result of greater privacy is 
reached by curving to the right or the left the inner walls of the 

i Job 4: 19. 2 Matt. 6:19. 3 Matt. 7 : 24, 25. * Isa.33: 12; Jer. 22 : 14; Ezek. 13: 10; Hag. 1 : 4. 



z 






DIVAN 


z 
< 
> 




> 
a 


A 




E a 




B £ 




■ 

D 


OPEN 


■ 




A 


■ 
■ 

E 


COURT 


■ 
D 

■ 


A 








; 


5 

i 1 


8 



Plan of an Eastern House. 

c, Entrance. A, Family-room. K, Walls, 01 
galleries, between the open court and the rooms. 
G, Stairs to the upper stories and roof. ft, Private HieiltS Connected 
staircase. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 21 

porch. The place is generally roomy and provided with seats where 
callers may temporarily await the convenience of the master of the 
house. Servants and retainers in considerable numbers also are often 
found here. We read of Uriah the Hittite that he "slept at the 
door of the king's house with all the servants of his lord, and went 
not down to his house." * It was in the porch that the porter kept 
watch over the property of his master. 2 In the porch of the high 
priest's house Peter denied his Lord with an oath. 3 

18. The principal interior court of an eastern dwelling answers to 
the yard or free plat of ground generally found around our western 
ones. It is made as attractive as the owner's means will allow. It 
is often covered with a tessellated pavement of marble or other stones. 
A tank or fountain of water occupies the central space, around which 
flowering and odoriferous shrubs are tastefully arranged. Along the 
sides of the court runs a colonnade, or a veranda with pillars, upon 
which the doors and windows of the lower apartments open. It also 
serves to support the piazza of the second story, if there be one. In 
place of doors, rooms much used are supplied with curtains or hang- 
ings of some sort. The room for the reception of guests is ordinarily 
found across the court and directly opposite the main entrance to it. 
It has a raised platform, a divan stretching around two or more 
sides, and is carefully, sometimes lavishly, fitted up with rugs, mats 
and other conveniences for day and night. 

19. The rooms of eastern houses are generally square or oblong in 
shape. The heavy flat roof, and the thick walls needed to support 
it, largely determine the interior architecture. If the house consists 
of more than one story, the upper rooms are considered preferable, 
especially in the hot season. The lower ones are given up mostly to 
domestic uses, the storing of provisions, and to lodgings for servants. 
The former are often made higher and larger than the others, the 
second story being allowed to project over the first. They are favor- 
ite places for retirement — the roof also being easily accessible — as 
well for guests as for the more private social gatherings. Scrip- 
tural allusions to this portion of the dwelling arc somewhat nu- 
merous. It is said, in our English version, of Eglon king of Moab, 
that when Ehud smote him "he was sitting by himself alone in his 
summer parlor." 4 The margin of the Revision, however, which is 
more faithful to the Hebrew, has for "summer parlor," "upper cham- 
ber of cooling." It was here that the lifeless body of Tabitha was 
placed previous to her burial. 5 Here the disciples first gathered 

12 Sam. 11:9. 2 Mark 13: 34. 3 Matt. 26 : 71, 72. * Judg. 3 : 20. 5 Acts 9 : 37. 



22 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

after the ascension. 1 Here Paul preached. Here our Lord ate the 
last supper with his disciples. 2 (See illustration, p. 10.) 

20. Among the upper rooms, too, are generally found the women's 
apartments, unless there is a private court on the lower floor. In 
any case, the most sequestered part of the dwelling is selected for 
the so-called "harem," and access to it is permitted only to the male 
head of the household, though this exclusion did not prevail among 
the Hebrews. If these apartments are entered from the main court, 
they are carefully screened from it by means of partitions and lat- 
ticed windows. In the palace of Xerxes, as described in the book 
of Esther, there were separate dwellings for the women, opening on 
private inner courts and carefully guarded from outside intrusion, 
besides the palace especially devoted to the queen. 3 In ancient as in 
modern times the inner walls of eastern homes were often wainscoted 
and inlaid with ivory.. The ceiling, too, in some cases was artist- 
ically carved and brilliantly painted. 1 

21. According to Van Lennep, the "room which the Shunammite 
woman induced her husband to build on the wall for the holy man 
of God, Elisha, was doubtless erected over the liwan [reception-room] 
of the house, as is done at the present day, and was accessible by an 
outer staircase leading up from the central court. Similar was the 
loft where abode the prophet Elijah with the widow of Zarephath ; 
and we can see the correctness of the expression, 'Elijah took the 
child, and brought him down out of the chamber into the house.'" 5 
Rooms are also found in modern houses built upon and projecting 
over the porch. They are provided with a window which is pro- 
tected by a lattice, thus making an admirable post of observation 
for whatever is going on in the street. Ancient houses were similarly 
constructed. 6 

It cannot be determined with certainty whether this room over the 
porch, or the one indicated by Van Lennep as generally built over 
the reception-room, answers better to the expression "upper room" 
as used in the Bible. Still further, it is not clear whether this room 
was one particular room of several upper rooms in the same story, 
or was itself built on the flat roof of the house and extended a story 
above it. The latter supposition harmonizes best, in the majority 
of passages, with the Hebrew word rendered "upper room," as also 
with its context. 

» Acts 1 : 13. 2 Mark 14 : 15. 3 Esther 2 : 13, 14; 5:4; 7:1. M Kings 22 : W ; .Tor. 22 : 14 ; 
Amos :'■ : 15 ; J rag. 1 : 4. B Bible Lands, p. 442. « Judg. 5 : 28 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 16 ; 2 Kings 9 : 30, 
82 ; 1 Chrou. 15 : 21) ; Prov. 7:0; Dan. 6 : 10. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 23 

22. The Door. — The doors of eastern houses are uniformly small 
and low except where, for purposes of display, the outer one is made 
otherwise. They seem early to have been provided with hinges turn- 
ing in sockets, and with locks and keys in whose construction no little 
ingenuity was displayed. 1 In most modern houses the hinges are 
simply projecting portions of the door itself, which fit into sockets 
prepared for them. It is likely that 
the ancient hinges were generally 
similar ; at least this is the method 
in which the massive stone doors and y U 
gates were hung in ancient Hauran. E sJ-P tian Iron Ke r- ( From wukimtm.) 
And so nicely are flange and socket adjusted to one another, and so 
highly polished is the stone, that doors weighing many hundreds of 
pounds can be moved with a finger. 

23. Formerly, as now, it is likely locks and keys were made both 
of iron and of wood according to circumstances. A wooden key now 
quite generally in use is described as consisting of a piece of wood 
about a foot in length, provided at one end with a series of pegs. It 
is thrust into a little opening at the side of the door and applied to 
the bolt. This has a corresponding series of holes into which the 
pegs of the key fit, displacing thereby another set of pegs by which 
the bolt is held in its place. The keys of the house were in the care 
of the steward. 2 They were carried by attaching them to the girdle 
with a cord. Sometimes the cord was of sufficient length to allow 
of their being thrown over the shoulder. 3 

24. Knockers of iron resting on a broad-headed nail, somewhat 
after the form of those once considerably used among ourselves, are 
found on the doors of the rich and on houses of public entertain- 
ment. The loose ring hanging on the door and used for the purpose 
of drawing it together is sometimes employed for the same purpose. 
The peculiar construction of eastern houses, as already described, 
together with the loneliness of the streets, makes admission to them 
at night a much more formidable process than with us. The Bible 
contains several allusions to this circumstance, and none more re- 
markable than that in the Revelation where the ascended Lord is 
represented as standing at the door of the human heart and seeking 
admission. 4 

25. It was an injunction of the Mosaic legislation that the law 
should be written on the posts of the doors and on the gates. 5 The 

i Judg. 3 : 23, 25 ; Neh. 3:3; Prov. 26 : 14 ; Cant. 5:5. 2 Matt. 1G : 19 ; Luke 11 : 52. 3 i sa . 
22 : 22. 4 R ev . 3 : 20. 5 D eu t. 6 : 9. 



24 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

Jews of later times understood this literally. Accordingly they in- 
closed a slip of parchment in a reed or cylinder on which had been 
written Deut. 6 : 4-9 ; 11 : 13-21, and attached it to the door-post of 
each room in the house. At present the Jews of the East often nail 
to the door-casing the entire Decalogue, inclosed in a tin case. This 
custom has been widely adopted by other peoples of the East, par- 
ticularly by Mussulmans, who naturally select for this purpose pas- 
sages from the Koran. 

26. Windows. — As already observed, the windows of eastern 
houses open mostly into the inner court. This seems always to have 
been the case, though outside windows with projecting balconies 
were also found. 1 The construction of a window was a matter that 
required little ingenuity. It was a simple opening in the wall, cov- 
ered over, if desired, with thin slats of wood running crosswise so 
as to form a lattice. Glass was not in use for this purpose, although, 
as we learn from the book of Job, 2 it was not unknown to the He- 
brews at an early period. It remained for a long time with them 
an article of luxury, being mentioned with precious stones, as though 
belonging to the same category in rarity and value. Two instances 
are recorded in the Scriptures of persons falling from windows : that 
of Ahaziah in the Old Testament and that of Eutychus in the New. 3 
It is probable that the lattice with which the windows in these cases 
were provided was insecure. 

27. The Roof. — One of the most frequented and important parts 
of the eastern house is the roof. It is ordinarily flat, it being more 
necessary to guard against heat than rain. Its structure in biblical 
times seems to have beeu much the same as now. Heavy beams arc 
first laid upon the walls, and over these, at right angles and as 
thickly as possible, smaller scrips or joists of wood. Next to the 
wood is placed a layer of heather or other strong grass. Where the 
luxury can be afforded, mats serve the purpose still better, the object 
being to prevent the remaining material of the roof from falling 
through into the rooms below. Over the grass some cohesive sub- 
stance like clay or mud is carefully spread to the depth of several 
inches, and beaten or trodden down until it is sufficiently hard to be 
impervious to the rain. (See cut, p. 10.) In more recent times the 
surface of roofs is treated to a composition of oil and clay, which 
becomes exceedingly compact and offers a tolerably good protection 
against the elements. 

At the best, however, a roof so constructed requires constant atten- 

i Josh. 2:15; 2 Cor. 11 : 33. 2 Job 28 : 17. Kings 1:2; Acts 20:9. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 25 

tion. It is liable to crack uuder the influence of the heat, and after 
a rain it must be carefully rolled. Heavy stone rollers are frequently 
kept on the roof for this purpose. Tiles, which were first introduced 
for the covering of roofs by the Greeks, seem never to have been very 
popular with the peoples of western Asia. With all the care be- 
stowed upon it the roof is obviously the weak part of an Oriental 
dwelling. That leaky roofs were by no means uncommon, even in 
the comparatively prosperous times of Solomon, is shown by the 
metaphor found in the book of Proverbs: "A continual dropping 
in a very rainy day and a contentious woman are alike." 1 The 
Psalmist speaks of the grass on the housetops " which withereth afore 
it groweth up ;" 2 and the prophet Isaiah has a similar allusion. 3 

No part of the house iu Bible lands is more generally or contin- 
ually used than the roof, unless it be the court. For safety, as well 
as for some measure of seclusion, it is surrounded with a parapet or 
balustrade. (See illustration, p. 10.) In fact, special provision is 
made for such a protection in the code of Deuteronomy. 4 It is some- 
times built of solid masonry. More often, however, the masonry 
extends but a little way, and is surmounted by a lattice supported 
on a frame and covered with vines. It is considered by Orientals a 
great insult for one to take pains to observe what his neighbors are 
doing. David on the roof of his palace was exposed to the greater 
danger, because he was probably able to overlook those of the neigh- 
borhood. 5 For the moment, too, he seems to have lost sight of that 
defence to which he so often refers. 6 

28. The roof is used for a variety of purposes requiring the heat 
of the sun, like the drying of fruits, grain and flax, of wool and 
cotton after they have been washed, and of clothing. It was among 
the stalks of flax which had been laid on the roof to dry that Rahab 
hid the spies who were sent out by Joshua. 7 It is also a favorite 
place for walking, for social intercourse, for occasional retirement, 
and even for sleeping. Peter went on the housetop at Joppa in order 
to pray, when he saw the vision which had such important conse- 
quences for him and for the Christian Church. 8 During the period 
of Israel's defection under the kings, roofs of houses were often 
selected as places of idolatrous worship. 9 They are now much used 
in the East as a post of observation on public occasions, and are still, 
as in Isaiah's day, resorted to in times of panic and danger. 10 Here 

l Prov. 27 : 15. 2 p s . 129 : 6. 3 T sa . 37 . 27 ; cf. 2 Kings 19 : 26. * Deut. 22 : 8. & 2 Sam. 
11:2. cp s . 3;3. 7 j os h. 2:6. 8 Acts 10 : 9 ; cf. Prov. 21 : 9 ; 25 : 24. » Jer. 19 : 13; 32 :29; 
Zeph. 1:5. 10 Isa. 22 : 1. 



26 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

mourners attract greater attention by their lamentations j 1 and here, 
from the tops of buildings belonging to the government, proclama- 
tions are frequently made to the people. A similar custom in our 
Lord's time may have given rise to the words, " What ye hear in the 
ear, proclaim upon the housetops." 2 The houses in towns being gen- 
erally contiguous and their roofs nearly on the same level, it was 
easily possible to step from one to another, and in this way to go a 
considerable distance without descending into the street. To this 
fact the Saviour appears to refer when he warns his disciples with 
reference to approaching calamities: "And let him that is on the 
housetop not go down, nor enter in, to take anything out of his 
house." 3 

29. There were no proper chimneys or hearths in ancient Hebrew 
dwellings, although it might be so inferred from the common Eng- 
lish version of the Bible. 4 One Hebrew word which is rendered 
chimney means simply a lattice work through which the smoke 
escaped. Another so translated properly means a portable furnace 
or " brazier," as rendered in the Revised Version. In the most an- 
cient times a house was dedicated after its completion. 5 What the 
ceremony consisted in is not known ; but probably it was partly 
religious and partly social. 

30. Furniture of the House — The Bed. — The furniture of 
the house, while of greater variety and more durable than that of 
the tent, was of the simplest description. It consisted ordinarily of 
little more than a bed, a table, possibly some chairs or stools, a simple 
lamp, mats and cushions, jars for water and culinary utensils. 6 For 
the bed, a mattress of some sort with or without coverings, according 
to the season, was considered sufficient. 7 The poor, it is likely, slept 
on skins, rugs, or even the bare floor. A bedstead among the He- 
brews was unusual. The nearest approach to it, in general, was a 
raised platform on the side of the room. 8 On his flight from Absa- 
lom, King David, it would appear, was provided in his camp only 
with a bed, and vessels for drinking and cooking purposes. 9 That 
bedsteads were not unknown there is ample evidence ; but they were 
looked upon as luxurious. The prophet Amos earnestly rebukes the 
spirit of those who, being at "ease in Zion," and putting afar off the 
evil day, "lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch themselves upon their 
couches, and eat the lambs out of the flock." 10 A lofty and highly- 

i Isa. 15 : 3 ; Jer. 48 : 38. 2 Matt. 10 : 27 ; Luke 12 : 3. 3 Mark 13 : 1 ■">. « Bos. 13 : 3 ; of. 
Jer. 36:22. 6Deut. 20:5. * 2 Kings 4: 10. * 1 Sam. 19 : 15*} Luke 5 : 18-25. » 2 Kings 
1:4; Ps; 132:3. • 2 Sam. 17 : 28. » Amos 6: 4". 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 



27 



ornamented bedstead from the tomb of Rameses III. is on exhibition, 
which is provided with a wooden rest for the head and steps by which 
the bed was reached. The bed of Olophernes, too, is described as 




Modern Eastern Furniture. 
1, A Village Table. 2, A Brazier, Tongs, etc. 3, Stool, Chair, Persian Canopy Bed. 4, Couch and TTooden Pillow. 

having a canopy and even a mosquito-net. 1 In New Testament times 
there are several allusions to beds that could be carried. 2 They an- 
swered probably — if not consisting of a mere cushion or mattress — 
to our cot, which can be stretched out, and, when not iu use, be easily 
rolled up and carried from place to place. 

31. Parents and children seem to have slept, if not in the same 
bed as is still frequently the case in the East, at least in the same 
room. 3 The clothing worn during the day was not wholly removed 
at night. The girdle was loosed, and the outer garment was spread 
over the person. This, for the greater part of the year, formed the 
only covering of the poorer classes. Direct reference is made to this 
fact in a law of Deuteronomy. It is there enjoined with respect to 
such a garment which had been pledged for a debt that it is to be 
restored before the evening, " that he may sleep in his garment, and 
bless thee." 4 The pillow most commonly in use in the East at the 
present day is a goat-skin, stuffed with some soft substance like wool 
or cotton. The patriarch Jacob, on his way to Padan-aram, was able 



i Judith 10 : 21. 
cf. Ex. 22 : 26. 



2 Mark 2 : 4 ; John 5 : 8, 12 ; Acts 9 : 33, 34. 3 Luke 11 : 7. * Deut. 24 : Y. 



28 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

to dream sweet dreams of heaven even with a stone for a pillow ;* and 
our Lord, it would seem, wearied by his beneficent labors, fell asleep 
on the hard floor of a tossing vessel, with no other support for his 
head than a rower's cushion. 2 There are a number of references in 
the Scriptures to the custom of using the bed as a place to sit as w r ell 
as to lie down. 3 In such cases it probably consisted of a raised plat- 
form or divan. The coverings of the bed, if there were any, with 
the mattress, we may suppose were ordinarily rolled up during the 
day and covered, or were placed in a closet designed for them. Such 
a closet or smaller apartment seems to be meant in 2 Kings 11:2, 
where the " bedchamber" of the text is better rendered in the margin 
" chamber for the beds." 

32. Chairs. — Chairs were never much in use among the Hebrews. 
The name ("stool"), in fact, occurs but once in the English of the 
Old Testament ; and the Hebrew word there employed is the one 
commonly rendered " throne." 4 No doubt there would have been a 
distinctive name if the custom of using chairs had prevailed to any 
considerable extent. It seems to have been otherwise in Egypt and 
Assyria, if we may judge from the monuments. Chairs, some of them 
of a very elaborate pattern, are there frequently seen. The seats are 
from eight to ten inches in height, and often composed of thongs of 
leather compactly interlaced. The custom has not been widely 
adopted in the East. To the present day the Oriental prefers to sit 
on the floor, the bed or the divan, with his feet drawn up under him. 
In places of public resort, on the other hand, especially for strangers, 
chairs of a rude description are not uncommon. 

33. Tables. — That the Hebrews were accustomed to the use of the 
table appears from the fact that it was an article of furniture in the 
tabernacle. 5 The monuments of Egypt, moreover, contain numerous 
figures of tables of various sizes and shapes. The renowned Thothmes 
III. numbers among the things secured in a certain campaign six 
chairs, manufactured from cedar-wood and ivory, with their foot- 
stools, and six large tables of the same material, inlaid with gold and 
precious stones. The height of the table varied according to the 
uses to which it was to be put. It was enjoined that the table for the 
shewbread should be a cubit and a half in height. The one appear- 
ing on the arch of Titus seems scarcely so high as this. From the 
earliest times the Hebrews may, to a limited extent, have used tables 
for their meals, although it is more likely that the majority of the 

iGen.28:ll. SMark4:38. 8Gen.48:2; 1 Sam. 28 : 23 ; Ezek. 28 : 41. *2Kings4:10; 

but cf. Ex. 1 : 10. <> Ex. 25 : 2;3. « CI'. 1 Mace. 4 : 49 ; Joseph us, Antiq. 12, '_' : S, 9. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 29 

people were satisfied with a mat or a piece of leather. At first, too, 
it was the custom to sit at meals iDstead of to recline, as in New Tes- 
tament times. 1 The earliest biblical instance of the latter practice 
we find in the book of Amos. 2 That they sat in chairs, however, is 
quite unlikely. No doubt the present almost universal custom of 
squatting on mats before the table has always been the ordinary one. 

34. The divan appears to have been comparatively a late inven- 
tion, and to have been introduced into Palestine from Assyria. 3 In 
the modern Oriental house it often extends around three sides of the 
principal room. As already intimated, it is used both as a place 
for sitting and for sleeping. 

35. The Lamp. — The furnishing of an ancient Hebrew house 
seems to have been regarded as incomplete without a lamp. In the 
houses of the more wealthy, at least, it was customary to leave a lamp 
burning throughout the night. To such a custom reference is made 
in the book of Job, where it is said of the wicked, " The light shall 
be dark in his tent, and his lamp above him shall be put out." 4 





Ancient Terra-cotta and Glass Lamps of Chaldea and Assyria. 
(From. Specimens in British Museum.) 

While candles are now used in the East, there is no evidence that 
anything corresponding to them existed in biblical times, and the 
word, in our version, is a mistranslation for lamp. The ordinary 
lamp was probably made of earthenware or of some kind of metal, 
and held but little oil. It was such a lamp, we may suppose, that 
was carried by the virgins in the parable. 5 In form it was like a 
small shallow saucer, with the edge projecting on one side and 
turned up to make a place for the wick and a little oil. Olive oil 
was burned. Besides the earthen lamp in which the wick floated on 
a surface of oil, the similar but more ornate one of metal, and that 
of seven branches in the tabernacle, the torch is also mentioned in 
the Scriptures. 6 Its material is unknown. A torch now in use by 

1 Gen. 27 : 19 ; 43 : 33 ; Judges 19 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 20 : 24. 2 Amos 6:4; cf. Esther 1:6; Judith 
12 : 15 ; Luke 7 : 37 ; John 13 : 23. 3 Amos 3:12; 6:4; Esther 1:6. * job 18 : 6 ; cf. 21 : 17 ; 

29 : 3 ; Rev. 22 : 5. & Matt. 25 : 7. 6 j U( iges 7 : 16 ; Zech. 12 : 6 ; John 18 : 3. 



30 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

the police of Cairo in Egypt strongly reminds one of the device era- 
ployed by the soldiers of Gideon. It burns without a flame except 
when waved through the air. It serves the same purpose as a dark 
lantern. The burning end, moreover, is sometimes concealed in a 
small pot or jar, or otherwise covered when not in use. Metaphor- 
ical references to the lamp are not infrequent in the Bible. It is 
especially used as a figure of life and activity. 1 The word of God is 
compared to a lamp in more than one instance; 2 and the prophet 
Isaiah longed to see the righteousness of Zion " go forth as bright- 
ness, and her salvation as a lamp that burnetii." 

36. The Caravansary. — Of public buildings among the Hebrews 
the only one claiming special attention here, perhaps, is the caravan- 
sary or inn. It will be remembered that such a place is mentioned 
in the history of Joseph and in other parts of the Pentateuch, as well 
as in the New Testament. 3 The Hebrew word for it, literally trans- 
lated, would be "lodging-place." Its most usual modern name in 
the East is " khan," that is, " house." A more private place where 
strangers are entertained is now called " menzil." A similar distinc- 
tion seems to have obtained in ancient times, the more private resort 
being designated otherwise than the regular inn. In Jer. 41 : 17, for 
example, in the margin we read of " the lodging-place of Chimham." 
As a rule the inn itself was a very rude structure, providing little more 
than a bare shelter from the elements. This appears to have been 
the case with the one occupied by Joseph's brethren on their way from 
Egypt to Canaan. And it was also such an inn, it is likely, that Jo- 
seph and Mary, on their visit to Bethlehem, found already crowded, 
and w r ere therefore compelled to lay the infant Jesus in a manger. 4 

37. The following is a description of a modern caravansary or 
"kahn" as given by Van Lennep: 5 — "These structures vary in 
size and material, and are made of mud bricks and wood, or of ma- 
sonry — sometimes of hewn stone ; but the form is essentially the same, 
consisting of a square or oblong court, with one or two stories of 
rooms built around it. There is a large gate in the middle of one of 
the sides, which is closed at night with two heavy folding-doors, ad- 
joining which, as well as over it, are the most desirable and expens- 
ive rooms. A gallery often runs all around the court, and there is 
usually in the centre of the latter a fountain with a tank, or a well 
with troughs. Here the traveller is furnished with an empty room 
for a very small sum ; and the innkeeper is often able to provide 

i Ps. 18 : 28 ; Prov. 31 : 18. 2 p s . 119 : 105 ; Prov. G : 23. 3 Gen. 42 : 27 ; Ex. 4 : 24 ; Lake 
2 : 7 ; 10 : 34. * Luke 2:7. & Bible Lands, p. 80S. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 31 

food for man and beast. The stables are usually situated opposite the 
entrance gate. They are divided into compartments or rooms, each 
of which has a small platform, where the muleteers or grooms sleep 
in order to watch over their horses or other animals." (See cut, p. 10.) . 

38. Cities and Villages. — We find already in the time of the 
patriarchs a distinction made between cities and villages. The latter 
were not only smaller but were without walls, and generally depend- 
ent on some city near which they stood. 1 Such a city was their me- 
tropolis, that is, mother-city. 2 We read sometimes of " cities and 
their villages," and sometimes of " cities and their daughters," in 
both of w T hich expressions the relation of dependence is indicated ; 
but in the latter case possibly smaller cities in distinction from vil- 
lages may be included. In Joshua 15 : 45, for example, " Ekron 
with her towns [Heb. " daughters "] and her villages " is spoken of. 
This supposition appears the more reasonable that elsewhere the 
same original word is applied to both walled and unwalled cities. 3 
It is not possible to say what was understood to distinguish the un- 
walled city from the village, unless it was the larger size of the for- 
mer. Cities are discriminated from villages also in the New Tes- 
tament. Bethphage, Bethany and Emmaus are styled villages. 4 
Bethlehem is called both a village and a city. 5 

39. It is probable that even the smaller villages were originally 
surrounded with some kind of defence, since one of their names 
means in Hebrew a hedge. 6 Another word used to designate the 
village seems to refer to the protection afforded by the roof or walls 
of the house in distinction from the walls of the city. 7 A special 
name, " Havvoth," was given to towns on the east of the Jordan. 
The word meant originally anything laid out in a circle, as an en- 
campment, then hamlets or villages. 8 When villages grew to towns 
or cities, their names as villages were often retained. In Numbers 
34 : 4, for example, the word Hazar-addar, which appears as the name 
of a city, literally means the " village of Adar." In the same way 
the other most common name for village is found in the word Caper- 
naum, which signifies "village of Nahum." 

Among cities a distinction is to be made between simple walled 
towns, where the walls served as a boundary or a slighter kind of 
defence, and cities regularly fortified. For the latter we find nearly 
the same means of protection in earlier as in later times. 

i Lev. 25 : 29, 31 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 18 : Esther 9 : 19 ; Ezek. 38 : 11. 22 Sam. 20 : 19. 3 Deut. 3:5; 
Esther 9 : 19. * Matt. 21 : 2 ; Luke 10 : 38 ; 24 : 28. 5 Luke 2 : 4 ; cf. John 7 : 42. 6 Gen. 
25 : 16 ; Josh. 13 : 23. U Sam. 6 : 18. 8 Num. 32 : 41. 



32 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

40. It is an interesting fact that the Israelites, for the most part, 
inherited cities rather than built them. The land of Canaan is de- 
scribed as being full of cities at the time of the conquest, and it may 
be inferred that not a few of them were of considerable size and age. 
Such at least were Hazor and Jericho. 1 The two and a half tribes 
that settled on the east side of the Jordan seem to have laid the 
foundations of a few new places; 2 and we read of the rearing of a 
second Luz by one of the inhabitants of the old city, who had been 
spared by the Ephraimites. 3 The city of Samaria also was built 
from its foundations by Omri. 4 In most other instances where cities 
are referred to in the earlier records as having been " built" in Pal- 
estine, their enlargement or strengthening is probably meant. 

41. The Gates. — One of the most conspicuous and important 

features of an eastern city was its gates. 
Although directly connected with the 
walls, they formed a peculiar struc- 
ture by themselves. Their material was 
mostly wood or stone, or wood heavily 
armored with metal. The Bible speaks 
of gates of both brass and iron. 5 Gates 
were often two-leaved, and provided 
with heavy locks and bars. 6 In some 

Gate of Damascus. instances there were two gates, with an 

open space between them. This was the case at Mahanaim, where 
David awaited the issue of the battle with Absalom. A sentinel 
kept watch on the tower over the first gate. A warder with his at- 
tendants guarded the gate below. King David himself was in the 
open space between the two gates. 7 This space was used for a great 
variety of purposes. 

42. Streets. — The Hebrew words for streets indicate three gen- 
eral kinds of them. There was first the ordinary one, long, narrow 
and winding. 8 Then there were the broad squares near the gates, 
in front of public buildings, or where one street crossed another. 9 
And third, there was the short and contracted street or alley. 10 The 
narrowness of eastern streets in general is well known. They scarcely 
admit of two heavily-laden beasts of burden passing one another. 
As far as can be learned from history and from the ruins of ancient 
cities, they were no broader in the early times. 11 In some of the 

i Num. 13 : 28 ; Dent. 1 : 28 ; 13 : 13 ; Josh. 11 : 13 ; 24 : 13. 2 Num. 32 : 34-38. 3 Judges 1 : 26. 
4 1 Kings 16 : 24. - r > Ps. 107 : 1G ; Acts 12 : 10. « 1 Sam. 23 : 7 ; Isa. 45 : 1. 7 2 Sam. 18 : 24. 
8 Josh. 2 : 19. 9 2 Chron. 29 : 4 ; 32 : 6 ; Neh. 8:1,3. ™ Prov. 7:8; Eccles. 12:4; Cant, 

3:2. " Josephus, Antiq. 20, 5 : 3. 




DWELLINGS AND THEIR APP0IXT3IENTS. 



33 



larger cities, however, there were doubtless streets of greater width. 
Absalom at least seems to have used a chariot in Jerusalem in his 
efforts to seduce the people from their loyalty to David. 1 The same 
was true of Adonijah; 2 aud Jeremiah predicted that there should 
euter the gates of Jerusalem kings and princes " riding in chariots 
and on horses." 3 As a rule, no doubt, it was only near the gates 
and in other exceptional places that there was anything like the 
breadth of an avenue seen in the cities of the West. 

43. Such exceptional places accordingly were all the more fre- 
quented. Here were the public gatherings of every kind. We read 
in the Proverbs of Wisdom uttering her voice " in the broad places ; 
She crieth in the chief place of concourse ; At the entering in of the 



i B 


1 m 




If 


.: ■■■■ 




'" ^ 




y 


J212 


pftll 






-^^=3=1311= 


- . ' ! 


y^^SS^Vsa^-fe 


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The Interior of the Jaffa Gate at Jerusalem. (After Photograph by Bonfils.) 

gates." 4 Here the Pharisees paraded their good w r orks. 5 Here, in 
those terrible conflicts which the Jews at various times had with 
their enemies, the most serious encounters always took place. 6 
Here, too, was the market-place; 7 here justice was administered; 8 
and here strangers entering the city were received and welcomed as 
guests. 9 An enemy in possession of the gates commanded the city ; 
hence, gates are frequently used as a symbol of power. Our Lord 
says that the gates of Hades shall not prevail against his Church. 10 
The official name of the government of the Turkish empire is the 



2 Sam. 15 : 1. - 1 Kings 1:5. 3 Jer. 17 : 25. 
Kings 7:1. s D eu t. 17 : 5 ; Ruth -4 : 1-3. 

3 



* Prov. 1 : 20, 21. 5 Matt. 6:5. 6 Isa. 51 : 20. 
9 Gen. 19 : 1 ; 23 : 10, 18. w Matt. 16 : 18. 



34 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

Sublime Porte. The last word means gate, the gate of the sultan's 
palace being referred to, where justice is supposed to be administered. 

The streets were rarely paved in an eastern town, and almost as 
rarely cleaned ; their mud and filth being proverbial. 1 In the streets 
of Pompeii the high stepping-stones used for crossing show what the 
ordinary condition of the streets must have been there. The only 
mention made of pavement in the Old Testament is in connection 
with buildings like the temple and others. 2 If we may trust Jose- 
phus, this king also laid " a causeway of black stone along the road 
that led to Jerusalem." 3 The work of cleaning and paving public 
streets seems to have been first seriously undertaken by the Herods, 
those of Jerusalem being laid with white stones by Agrippa II. 4 In 
view of this state of things the imagery in the book of Revelation 
respecting the new Jerusalem is all the more striking by contrast, 
its streets being represented as paved with " pure gold, as it were 
transparent glass." 5 

44. The Bazaar. — A peculiar kind of street in the Orient is the 
bazaar. It consists of a covered arcade with a row of narrow shops 
on either side. (See cut, p. 10.) It is also found to some extent in 
the cities of Europe. In many cases persons of a like trade con- 
gregate together in the same neighborhood. This appears to have 
been equally true in biblical times. We read, for example, of the 
prophet Jeremiah in his imprisonment that he was to receive daily 
"a loaf of bread out of the baker's street." 6 After the Babylonian 
captivity a quarter of Jerusalem seems to have been frequented par- 
ticularly by goldsmiths and another by merchants. 7 There is also 
evidence that when one people became tributary to another, a privi- 
lege sometimes granted to the ruling powers was that they might lay 
out streets for the purposes of trade in the cities of their tributaries. 
Benhadad I. of Damascus enjoyed the privilege of such streets in 
Samaria; and Benhadad II. made to Ahab the same concession con- 
cerning Damascus. 8 As already intimated, the street where a certain 
kind of wares was sold received a corresponding name. Others 
were named from important points which they passed or to which 
they led. One street in Damascus, it will be recalled, has in the 
New Testament the name "Straight." It runs from east to west and 
is about half a mile in length. It was here that Paul received his 
sight after the miraculous vision of Jesus. 9 

l Ps. 18:42; Isa. 10:6; Micah 7:10; but cf. 1 Kings 14: 10. 22 Kings 16: 17; Esther 

1:6; Ezek. 17 : 18 ; 42 : 3. 3 Antiq. 8, 7 : 4. * Antiq. 20, 9 : 7. 6 Rev. 21 : 21. » Jer. 87 : 21. 
»Neh.3:31. 8 1 Kings 20:34. o Acts D : 11. 



DWELLINGS AND THEIR APPOINTMENTS. 35 

45. The Water Supply. — For a supply of water in villages and 
large towns in the East dependence has always been largely placed 
on private wells and cisterns. While the soil of Palestine is well 
adapted to both, the long dry season makes cisterns the more practi- 
cable and unfailing. We read in the Bible of the private ownership 
of cisterns as early as the time of David, and of their use in the age 
of the patriarchs; 1 and the Moabite Stone informs us that the king 
of Moab had ordered that every resident of a certain city should 
provide a cistern in connection with his house. The cistern, if not 
hewn out of the solid rock, was generally built up with stone, a 
small round opening being left at the top. They were sometimes of 
immense capacity. 2 Water was conducted to them during the rainy 
season by means of troughs leading from the roofs of the houses. 
Various devices were used for drawing the water, the more common 
being that of a rope running over a wheel, to which a bucket of skin 
w 7 as attached, the so-called " shadoof," answering to the modern 
well-sweep. 

Natural wells w T ere of course of rarer occurrence and much more 
prized. In Numbers 21 : 17 there is recorded a song that was com- 
posed over a well and was sung by the Israelites in the wilderness at 
a place called "Beer," that is, "well." At an early period water 
was conveyed into Jerusalem by means of pipes. 3 Somewhat later 
Solomon's Pool, lying south of Bethlehem, was the source of water 
supply for the city. According to Josephus, it was the work of 
Pilate, the Boman governor. 4 The ruins still existing point to a 
much earlier date, and Jewish tradition affirms that it was the work 
of Solomon. 5 It is likely that Pilate only repaired what had been 
built long anterior to his time. The use of cisterns as places of im- 
prisonment is marked by no less conspicuous examples than those of 
Joseph and the prophet Jeremiah. 6 The cistern was also a favorite 
subject for rhetorical figures among biblical writers. No one of 
them is more striking and forcible perhaps than that of the "weep- 
ing prophet," who represents the God of Israel as saying, 7 "For my 
people have committed two evils ; they have forsaken me the fount- 
ain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, 
that can hold no water." 

The population of most biblical cities was comparatively small. 
The tribe of Levi, made up of about twenty-two thousaud males 8 in 

1 Gen. 37 : 22 ; Deut. 6:11; 2 Sara. 17 : 18. 2 j er . 41 : 9. 3 i sa . 7 : 3 ; 22 : 9, 11 ; 2 Chron. 

32:3,4. * Anliq. 18,3:2. 5 cf. Eccles. 2: 6; Judith 7 : 6, 7. 6 Gen. 37 : 22; Jer. 38 : 6. 

* Jer. 2 : 13. 8 ]s T U m. 3 : 39 ; Josh. 21 : 41. 



36 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



the time of Moses, was put in possession of forty-eight cities, includ- 
ing some of the importance of Sychem, Hebron, Heshbon and 
Ramoth. We find also that an army of three thousand men con- 
sidered itself strong enough to capture the walled town of Ai ; x while 
in the kingdom of Bashan alone there were sixty fortified cities 
which fell into the hands of the children of Israel. 2 



i Josh. 7:3,4; 8:25. 



2 Deut, 3 : 4, 5. 




One of the Seven Wells at Beer-sheba, with Watering-troughs for 
Camels about it. (From Palmer's Desert of the Exodus.) 



CHAPTER II. 

THE FAMILY. 

1. We have already seen that the Hebrew conception of the 
house embraced that of the household. One word was employed to 
designate both the dwelling and its inmates. 1 Originally it meant 
something built up or built together. Each member of the house- 
hold was an integral part of the structure. " It may be," said Sarah 
of her handmaid, Hagar, " that I shall be builded [that is, my family 
be enlarged and strengthened] by her." 2 The psalmist likewise beau- 
tifully compares a daughter to a " corner-stone " worthy to be set in 
the walls of a palace. 3 Another expression and one still more widely 
used in the Bible for the household literally signifies what is joined 
together; 4 in fact, the idea could scarcely be set forth more em- 
phatically than it is by this term. Here then, imbedded in their 
very forms of speech, we discover how compact and indestructible 
an institution the family was regarded by the ancient Hebrews. 

2. Children. — In harmony with this underlying idea children 
were looked upon as one of the greatest blessings of life, a " herit- 
age" from the Lord and his peculiar "reward." 5 They were earn- 
estly prayed for when not given, and their advent was marked by 
the heartiest congratulations of friends and neighbors. 6 No doubt 
the great hope of Israel that through the " Seed of the woman " the 
evils of the world would some day be overcome had much to do 
with this sentiment. 

The employment of midwives at the time of birth is well-nigh 
universal in the East ; and the process described in Exodus 1 : 16, 
where a chair of peculiar construction is referred to as in use in 
Egypt on such occasions, is still common throughout western Asia. 
The majority of women, especially those of the working classes, suf- 
fer but little during parturition, ordinary duties being resumed after 
three or four days. 7 AlS soon as a child is born it is washed in salted 
water and closely bound, or swaddled, up in a piece of cloth a few 
inches broad and several feet long. 8 This is wound tightly around 

i Gen. 46 : 31. * Gen. 16 : 2 (margin of Revision) ; cf. 30 : 3 ; Deut. 25 : 9. 3 Ps. 144 : 12. 
4 Ex. 6 : 17. 5 p s . U3 : 9 ; 127 : 3-5. 6 Gen. 15 : 2-5 ; 1 Sam. 1 : 27 ; Ruth 4:11. 7 Cf. Ex. 
1:19. SEzek. 16:4; Luke 2 : 7. • 

37 



38 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

the entire body. Even the arms are pinioned to the side and the 
whole frame held as motionless as possible, under the impression that 
there is danger to the child if it move about too much while the 
bones are soft. This practice is common also in many parts of 
Europe. An Oriental cradle differs but little from some in use among 
ourselves. " The little one lies tightly bound up in its cradle day 
and night, being taken up once or twice in twenty-four hours. Its 
mother leans over the cradle to nurse it, and hushes its cries by 
incessant rocking : all night long lying in her bed, spread upon the 
floor close by, she never lets go the cradle string." 1 

Hebrew children were uniformly nursed by their mothers. 2 A 
son was circumcised on the eighth day after his birth and at the 
same time received his name. 3 If he were a first-born son, redemp- 
tion money was paid for him to the amount of five shekels. This 
was in memory of the fact that the first-born of Israel were passed 
by when those of Egypt were miraculously slain. 4 Originally, it 
would seem, they had been intended for service in the sanctuary. 
After the defection of Israel in the matter of the golden calf the 
tribe of Levi was set apart for this purpose, and the first-born of the 
other tribes became exempt by the payment of a tax. 4 On the 
fortieth day after the birth of a son, and the eightieth after that 
of a daughter, the mother presented herself at the sanctuary for 
ceremonial purification, bringing an offering according to her 
ability. 5 

Nothing could be more marked or delightful than the respect 
which the Bible everywhere shows for children and childhood. Tac- 
itus, the Latin historian, thinks it worthy of mention that the Jews 
regarded it as a crime to kill their offspring. 6 Not only were their 
rights protected by statute, but the spirit of the Mosaic institutions 
encouraged the utmost tenderness and affection towards them. It is 
significant that there are no less than nine special terms in the He- 
brew language used to designate different periods or characteristics 
of the child's life, besides the more general ones of son and daughter. 
What a revelation of paternal love appears in the form of the com- 
mand to Abraham to offer up Isaac as a burnt-offering; 7 in the words 
of Jacob when he received the news of Joseph's death ; 8 and in the 
despairing cries of David over the lost Absalom ! 9 No more power- 
ful image of the love of God for his people could be found than this 

i Van Lennep, Bible Lands, p. 570. 2 i gam. 1 : 23; 1 Kings 8 : 21. 8 Luke 1 : 59. * Kx. 
13 : 12-15 ; 22 : 29 ; Lev. 27 : G ; Num. 8 : 17. 6 Lev. 12 : 2-7 ; Luke 2 : 22-24. « Hist. 5 : 5. 

t Gen. 22:2. » Gen. 87:85. • 2 Sam. 19:4. 



THE FAMILY. 39 

of a Hebrew father for his sod. " The Lord thy God bare thee/' 
says Moses, " as a man doth bear his son." 1 

3. But parental love might not stand in the way of correction for 
faults ; it should rather lead to it. The work of training began with 
the opening life. 2 It was made not only the earliest and latest duty 
of both the parents, but it was to be also the special care of the 
state. 3 It was a fundamental principle of all education that the 
" fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." * The Scriptures, not 
excluding the portions that treat of the ceremonial institutions of 
the Jewish religion, were the principal text-book at home and in the 
school. How well they w T ere studied the typical example of Timothy 
shows us, of whom Paul could say that "from a babe" he had known 
" the sacred writings." 5 In his case it had been largely due to the 
faithfulness of a mother and grandmother. Sacred history gives us a 
few glimpses of these true mothers in Israel : in Samuel's mother ; the 
pious Shunammite; the mother of King Lemuel, whose wise coun- 
sels we find in the last chapter of Proverbs ; " the mother of Zebe- 
dee's children ;" of John Mark ; Mary the blessed, whom our Lord 
called mother ; the " elect lady and her children," and her equally 
"elect sister" with her children, beloved in the truth. 6 Parents 
are not only admonished in the Scriptures to instruct their off- 
spring in the precepts and ordinances of religion, but to see that 
they are present during religious ceremonies that they may be led 
to inquire concerning them and become acquainted with their im- 
port. At least as early as the time of our Lord schools had been 
established in connection with synagogues wherever the population 
would justify it. How he himself felt towards the little ones his 
own precious words give testimony : " Suffer the little children, and 
forbid them not, to come unto me : for of such is the kingdom of 
heaven." 7 

That Hebrew children, like those of other peoples, were accus- 
tomed to the pastimes of childhood there is no reason to doubt. The 
prophet Zechariah, describing the better future of Israel, says that 
the "city [Jerusalem] shall be full of boys and girls playing in the 
streets thereof." 8 Among the curiosities exhumed from the ruins of 
ancient cities the dolls and playthings of children form a noticeable 
part. Those of the ancient Egyptian youth as found laid away 
beside them in their tombs are constructed with a skill that would 

l Dent. 1 : 31 ; cf. Ps. 103 : 13. 2 p rov . 10 : 1 ; 13 : 24 ; 23 : 14 ; 29 : 15. 3 Ex. 13:8; Deut. 

4:9; 6: 7; 11 : 19; 31 : 13. * Prov. 1 : 7 ; 9 : 10. r -> 2 Tim. 1 : 5 ; 3 : 15. 6 2 John 13. - Matt. 
19:14. szech. 8:5. 



40 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

do credit to modern times. There is a hint in the book of Job that 
birds were sometimes made captive and attached to strings for 
amusement; 1 and our Lord, in the way of illustration, intimates 
that the children of his day entertaiued themselves with the noise of 
trumpets and horns. In such sports they were ready to imitate either 
the gayety of the marriage festival or the solemnity of the funeral. 2 

4. Even during the father's life-time the first-born son was entitled 
to special privileges. 3 After his death he received twice as much of 
his property as any other child and took the place of the father as 
the head of the family. In the patriarchal times he seems also to 
have acted as the priest of the family. 4 Along with these rights 
naturally went the duty of providing for the mother, if living, and 
other dependent members of the household. The son of a concubine, 
if first-born, was eligible to the privileges of primogeniture, and it 
was exceptional when he was put off with simple presents. 5 It was 
understood that the father had the option, on grounds appearing 
sufficient to himself, to assign the rights of the first-born to a younger 
brother or even to make a nephew his heir. 6 On the other hand, a 
father was expressly forbidden to show partiality towards the son of 
a favorite wife and solely on that ground to deprive him of his 
birthright. 7 

The eldest son might sell his birthright, if so disposed, and primi- 
tive custom regarded such sale as valid though afterwards he might 
seek "diligently with tears" to recover it. 8 A father might direct 
how his property should be distributed after his death, though it 
interfered with ordinary customs ; but we hear nothing of the will 
in a technical sense in the Bible, until we come to the epistle to the 
Galatians. 9 Daughters were generally left portionless, it being ex- 
pected that they would be provided for by the eldest brother or by 
their husbands. 10 When there were no sons, however, they became 
joint heirs of their father's estate, providing they did not marry out- 
side the family line, thereby alienating the inheritance. Even then 
they might claim their portion if the husband took the family name 
of his wife. 11 In cases where there were only daughters in the family 
and they unmarried, their names were entered in the registers of 
families as representatives of the father's house. 12 

5. Marriage. — It might have been expected that marriage would 
be well-nigh universal among the Hebrews. Without it the life of 

* Job 41 : 5. 2 Matt, 11 : 16-18. 3 Gen. 24 : 50 ; 43 : 33. * Gen. •_>? : 29 ; Pent. 21 : 17 ; 

cf. Num. 3 : 41. & Gen. 21 : 10-14. 6 Gen. 48 : 5, 6; 49 : 3, 4; 1 Chron. 5 : 1. ' Deut. 21 : 15- 

17. s Gen. 25 : 33 ; Heh. 12 : 17. « Gal. 3 : 15. w Gen. 31 : 14, 15. » Num. 96 : (5-9 ; 1 

Chron. 2 : 34, 35 ; 23: 22; Neh. 7: 63. " Num. 27 : 1-11. 



THE FAMILY. 41 

the family and of the community as presupposed in the Mosaic in- 
stitutions would be impossible. But iu this relationship, as presented 
in the books of the Old Testament, we are carefully to distinguish 
between what, for the time, was ideal and what was actual ; between 
what the Bible represents as the true relation of man and woman in 
marriage and that which it permitted because of the hardness of 
men's heart ; between that which was original and divinely appointed 
and that to which this divine original degenerated after the fall. 
" In the beginning it was not so," was Christ's answer to all attempts 
to charge upon the Creator the later irregularities of the marriage 
bond. After quoting to the Pharisees the original charter of the 
institution of monogamy, and showing that the two persons con- 
cerned in marriage became thereby one flesh, he adds, " What there- 
fore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder." 1 By the 
very expressions used the idea of polygamy is excluded. 

6. But as a matter of fact, we find even in Genesis 4 : 19 the 
record of an infraction of this divine arrangement. Lamech, of the 
posterity of Cain, is said to have taken two wives. 2 Soon after this, 
as we may suppose, the practice of polygamy became somewhat com- 
mon, especially among men of rank and wealth. Even some of the 
best of the patriarchs were not free from it. But Noah and his sons 
appear to have been monogamists, and there is no evidence that 
Moses had more than one wife at once. 3 The prophets, too, as far 
as we know, were all of this class. And in that ideal condition de- 
picted in the last chapter of Proverbs, monogamy is represented as 
one of its most prominent and winning features. The practice of 
polygamy among the Hebrews, it is certain, never sank to the low 
level of the surrounding peoples. The Mosaic laws everywhere 
recognize the principle of monogamy in requiring a distinction to 
be made between the first or legitimate wife and those taken in addi- 
tion to her. They restricted the number of wives to those most 
under temptation to multiply them. 4 They prohibited a second mar- 
riage in certain cases. 5 Within certain limits they definitely pre- 
scribed a man's matrimonial obligations, if he took more wives than 
one. 5 But down to New Testament times, though with diminishing 
prevalence, polygamy continued to be the custom. Then it rapidly 
disappeared before the clearer light and higher claims of Chris- 
tianity. 

7. In the patriarchal period marriage between near relatives 
seems not to have been uncommon. It was principally due to a de- 

i Matt, 19 : 4-7. 2 Cf. Num. 12 . 1. 3 Deut. 17 : 17. * Lev. 18 : 18. 5 Ex. 21 : 10, 11. 



! 



42 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

sire to preserve, as far as possible, the family bond intact, and avoid 
connections with idolaters. That such a state of things could not 
long continue without the most disastrous effects is apparent enough. 
In the Mosaic laws accordingly the matter is carefully regulated, 
the limits being sharply defined within which marriage would be 
legal. 1 How important the subject was considered may be inferred 
from the heavy penalties attached to any infraction of the statute, 
and from the fact that of the curses pronounced on Mount Ebal, 
three related to incestuous marriages. 2 

Little need be said on the form and limits of the Levitical law 
respecting prohibited marriages. The wisdom of its provisions has 
been generally recognized among Christian nations, and tacitly, at 
least, by some heathen peoples. The word " incest," that is, " un- 
chaste," which the Romans applied to the intermarriage of near re- 
lations, shows in what light they regarded it. Nothing is said of 
marriage to a daughter in the code of Leviticus simply because its 
prohibition is implied, a fortiori, in that of granddaughter. 3 The 
same seems to be true of the relation of uncle and niece, the mar- 
riage of aunt and nephew being expressly forbidden. The Jewish 
law did not prohibit the marriage of cousins, although in some of 
the United States that of first cousins has been made illegal. The 
same is true of step-brothers and sisters, as far as the Mosaic stat- 
utes are concerned. With obvious reference to polygamous prac- 
tices, marriage with a wife's sister, during the life-time of the wife, 
is expressly prohibited. 4 The words "in her lifetime," however, 
naturally lead to the inference that it was not illegal for one to 
marry the sister of a deceased wife ; and rabbinical law has always 
sanctioned this view. 

8. Another special exception referred to a brother's wife, where the 
brother had died childless. She was not permitted to marry a 
stranger, unless the surviving brother-in-law living near formally 
refused to marry her. 5 The latter form of marriage is called levir- 
ate, from the Latin word levir, which means brother-in-law. Such 
a marriage was intended, first, to prevent the extinction of the name 
of him who had died childless ; and second, to be in harmony with 
the agrarian laws of Israel concerning the retention of property 
within the same tribe and family. The first-born son of such a 
union took the name of the deceased uncle instead of that of his 
father, and succeeded to his estate. It was at a person's option to 

1 Lev. 18:6-18; 20:11-21. 2 Dent. 27 : 20, 22, 23. a Lev. IS : 10. « Lev. 18:18. 

6 Deut. 25:5; Matt. 22:24. 



THE FAMILY. 43 

accede to or decline such a union ; but in the Mosaic period his 
refusal was attended with a peculiar disgrace. 1 If there were no 
brother of the deceased husband alive, the law of the levirate was 
understood to be, to some extent, binding on the next of kin. In 
the case of Ruth's relative, we find him ready to yield to Boaz the 
right to the Moabitess, and doing so by means of the interesting 
ceremony of drawing off the shoe, as a sign of renunciation. 2 
Modern Judaism does not consider the law T of levirate marriage any 
longer binding. 

9. By the law of Moses a man was forbidden to re-marry a di- 
vorced w 7 ife, provided she had married again and become a widow, 
or had been divorced from her second husband. 3 A rabbinical exten- 
sion of this prohibition was made to cover the case of a person who 
desired to re-marry a woman from whom he had been divorced on the 
ground of a bad reputation or of barrenness, whether she had been 
married a second time or not. Jewish tradition, as formulated in 
the Talmud, also interpreted Deut. 23 : 2, where a bastard — " a per- 
son born of incest or adultery" — is excluded from the assembly of 
the Lord, as meaning that such a person might not intermarry with 
an Israelite. It applied the same rule to such as were mutilated as 
described in Deut. 23 : 1. 

Israelites were further forbidden by statute to intermarry with 
any of the seven Canaanitish nations, on the ground of imperilling 
thereby their loyalty to Jehovah.* The prohibition, however, is 
expressly limited to these nations. We find Moses himself marry- 
ing first a Midianitish and afterwards a Cushite woman ; and David, 
a princess of Geshur. 5 Subsequent to the exile this law of the Pen- 
tateuch was extended by the Jewish authorities so as to forbid all 
foreign marriages. Among others, one conspicuous case is instanced 
where, on refusal to break off a marriage of this kind, a grandson 
of the high priest was expelled from the priesthood by Nehemiah. 6 
In addition to these general rules for the laity, a priest was at all 
periods still more circumscribed. He was forbidden to marry a har- 
lot, a profane (polluted) person, or one w T ho had been divorced. The 
high priest was limited to a " virgin of his own people." 7 Later, in 
the days of Ezekiel, the original law was so far modified in the direc- 
tion of greater rigor that it was regarded as illegal even for an ordin- 
ary priest to marry a widow, unless she were the widow of a priest. 8 

1 Deut. 25 : 7-10. 2 R u th 4:7. 3 p e ut. 24 : 4. * Ex. 34 : 16 ; Deut, 7 : 3, 4 ; cf. 23 : 3. 5 Ex. 
2 : 21 ; Num. 12:1; 2 Sam. 3:3; cf. Gen. 41 : 45 ; 1 Chron. 7:14. 6 Ezra 9 : 12 ; 10 : 2, 3, 14- 

44 ; Neh. 10 : 30 ; 13 : 25, 29. 7 Lev. 21 : 7, 14. 8 Ezek. 44 : 22. 



< 



44 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

10. Betrothal in the earliest times was mostly a matter of business, 
and was supposed to concern chiefly the parents and near family 
friends. 1 The sentiment seems always to have prevailed in the Orient, 
and prevails also at the present day in large portions of Europe, 
that love is more likely to spring up between the sexes after, than 
before, marriage, and that previous to marriage it is something to 
be deprecated rather than desired. It is probable that even in the 
Mosaic period there was some recognized formality of betrothal, 
since a distinction is clearly made between the betrothed and the 
married.' 2 It was not until the development of rabbinical law under 
the second Jewish commonwealth, however, that a legal ceremonial 
for it was regularly established. Later practice, too, left the choice 
of a wife more and more to the young man. This is clear from the 
statement of the Talmud that annually, on the afternoon of the day 
of Atonement, when the maidens of Jerusalem, arrayed in white, 
gathered in the vineyards contiguous to the city and engaged in 
various festivities, the young men made their selection of partners. 
Betrothal at all times was regarded as more than a promise to 
marry : it was its initial act. It was something which could be dis- 
solved only by death or legal divorce. Faithlessness to the vow was 
esteemed and punished as adultery. 3 Talmudic law held that the 
consent of the persons betrothed was essential to the validity of the 
betrothal. It might however be given in person or by deputy. The 
ceremony itself consisted in the simple act on the part of the bride- 
groom of handing to the bride, or her representative, a written en- 
gagement in the presence of two witnesses, or a piece of money, how- 
ever small, accompanied with the words "Be thou consecrated 
[wedded] to me." Since the middle ages a ring has been substituted 
for the piece of coin, and is now the customary sign of betrothal. 

11. In biblical times, before the betrothal actually took place it was 
usual to fix upon the dowry. As a rule it was given to the parents 
of the bride, 4 though sometimes to an elder brother. 5 The dowry 
was not, properly speaking, a price paid for a wife. This species of 
barter occurred, as a rule, only in the case of concubines. In pro- 
portion as the idea of marriage approached the ethical standard of 
the Scriptures themselves, as in the case of the patriarchs, the dowry 
was looked upon more in the light of a present made to the bride 
or her parents, for the purpose of sealing the engagement, or of 
enabling the bride to assume a worthy place in her future home. 

1 Gen. 21 : 21 ; 24 : 3. 2 p eut . 20 : 7. 3 L ev . 19 : 20 ; Dent. 22 : 28-29 ; but el'. Matt. 1 : 18 19. 
* Ex. 22: 1G, 17; 1 Sam. 18:25. 6 Gen. 24:58; 34:12. 



THE FAMILY. 



45 



Had it Dot been so it would be difficult to understand the complaint 
of Rachel and Leah against their father : " For he hath sold us, aud 
hath also quite devoured our money," * that is, the price paid for us. 
That there are instances to the contrary is not strange ; but they are 
to be regarded as exceptions. 2 In rabbinical law as established at 
least a hundred years before Christ, the dowry took the direct form 
of a settlement upon the wife, and was held to be as indispensable 
as the marriage license is among ourselves. The amount naturally 
depended on the circumstances of those concerned, but ordinarily 
ranged between thirty and fifty shekels, that is, from fifteen to 
twenty-five dollars. 3 It might consist of money or its equivalent. 4 
Instances are on record where parents themselves bestowed presents 
on their daughters at the time of their betrothal. 5 

12. Marriage contracts ap- 
pear to have been mostly oral 
and of a simple character. The 
earliest account of a written one 
is found in the book of Tobit. 6 
But the oral covenant was by no 
means considered a mere form. 
It seems to have been made in 
the presence of witnesses, and its 
sacred character is several times 
made the subject of direct refer- 
ence in the Old Testament. 7 It 
may have related in detail to 
such matters as the position and 
rights of the wife in the family, 
the denial of divorce on insufficient grounds and similar topics. 

13. After the betrothal a longer or shorter period, according to 
circumstances, was allowed to elapse before the nuptials. 8 By Tal- 
mudic law it was established at a month for widows and a full year 
for virgins. In the meantime no private intercourse was allowed 
between the betrothed. The wedding festivities were chiefly of a 
social character, and ordinarily lasted seven days, but might continue 
twice as long. 9 There is no scriptural evidence that the services of 
a priest were thought needful. Guests were first invited and after- 
wards summoned by special messenger. 10 When the wedding-day 




A Bridal Crown. 



i Gen. 31 : 15. 2 Hos. 3 : 1, 2. 3 Deut. 22 : 29. 4 Gen. 29 : 18 ; Josh. 15 : 16. 5 Gen. 
29 : 24, 29 ; Tobit 10 : 11. 6 Tobit 7 : 15. ? R ut h 4 : 11 ; Prov. 2:17; Ezek. 16 : 8 ; Mai. 2 : 14. 
8 Gen. 24 : 55, 67 ; Deut. 20 : 7 ; Judg. 14 : 8. 9 Judg. 14 : 12, 17 ; Tobit 8 : 20. "> Luke 14 : 17. 



46 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

arrived the bridegroom, richly dressed, possibly crowned with gar- 
lands or with a nuptial turban on his head, and attended by special 
companions, went in procession to the house of the bride to conduct 
her to his own house or that of his father. 1 In the time of our Lord 
and later the custom of having special groomsmen, "friends of the 
bridegroom," seems to have been somewhat local. It was at least 
practiced in Judaea. At the marriage in Cana of Galilee, on the 
other hand, none are mentioned. The term " children of the bride- 
chamber" 2 refers to another class, that is, to guests in general. 

The bride, deeply veiled, was led away amidst the blessings of her 
parents and other friends. 3 If circumstances rendered it necessary, 
however, the wedding festivities were celebrated at the house of the 
bride. 4 The bridegroom, if wealthy, sometimes distributed garments 
suitable for the occasion among his guests. 5 The bridal procession 
not infrequently took place at night, amidst the blaze of torches 
and with the accompaniment of songs, dancing and the highest ex- 
pressions of joy. 6 "Under Mosaic law, the bridegroom was exempt 
for a limited period from all public duties; and such exemption 
availed also for one who had become betrothed. 7 

14. The Bible sacredly guards the marriage bond by special stat- 
utes. In harmony with prevailing custom, and during the low stage 
of spiritual development in which the earlier laws arose, they assume, 
for the most part, the form of protection for the husband from the 
unfaithfulness of his wife, or from attempts on the part of others to 
seduce her from him. The sin of adultery was originally punished 
by the death, through stoning, of both participants; nor did the Mo- 
saic law any more than that of our Lord stop short with the outward 
act ; it condemned also the lustful desire. 8 A man suspecting his wife 
of unfaithfulness might subject her to a terrible ordeal which no 
guilty person could well pass through without betraying her guilt. 9 
Severe as w T as the trial, however, it was understood to be simply a 
means by which God made known what was the actual state of the 
case. In a similar manner the wife was protected by law against 
the ungrounded suspicions of her husband that she had been un- 
faithful previous to marriage. 10 

15. Divorce. — The earliest fragments of sacred history and the 
earliest laws furnish sufficient evidence of the radical perversion of 

1 Judg. 14 : 10 ; Cant. 3 : 11 ; Isa. 61 : 10 : 1 Mace. 9 : 37-30 ; Matt. 9 : 15; 25 : 1 ; John 3 : '29. 
2 Matt. 9 ; 15 : John 3 : 29. 3 R ut h 4 : 11 ; Tobit 7 : 12. < Gen. 29 : 22 ; Tobit S : 20. & Matt. 
22 : 11. o Matt, 22 : 1-10 ; 25 : 1-10. 7 Dent. 20 : 7 ; 24 : 5. 8 Lev. 20 : 10; Dent. 22 : 22 ; 

Ezek. 16 : 38, 40 ; Matt. 1 : 18, 19 ; John 8:5; ef. Ex. 20 : 17. 9 Num. 5 : 11-31. » Deut 

22 : 13-21 ; 24 : 1-4 ; cf. Ex. 21 : 22. 



THE FAMILY. 47 

the original relation which the Creator constituted between the 
sexes. 1 The Mosaic legislation attempted no more than to subject 
these perversions to severe restraints. The sacredness of the mari- 
tal tie is assumed in it, and provision is made against its being broken 
and renewed at will. Divorce is presupposed as a usage of the times, 
and a bare legal sanction is given to it under certain fixed condi- 
tions. It is not ordered, but permitted. Our Lord, it will be re- 
membered, corrected in this particular the false interpretation of the 
Pharisees, assuring them, moreover, that even so much was conceded 
only because of hardness of heart. 2 The important passage in Deu- 
teronomy relating to this subject is rendered as follows : " When a 
man taketh a wife, and marrieth her, then it shall be, if she find no 
favor in his eyes, because he hath found some unseemly thing in her, 
that he shall write her a bill of divorcement, and give it in her hand, 
and send her out of his house. And when she is departed out of his 
house, she may go and be another man's wife. And if the latter 
husband hate her, and write her a bill of divorcement, and give it 
in her hand, and send her out of his house ; or if the latter husband 
die, which took her to be his wife ; her former husband, which sent 
her away, may not take her again to be his wife, after that she is 
defiled ; for that is abomination before the Lord." 3 

Such a bill of divorcement was in itself a decided limitation. It 
made needful not a little delay which might be spent in reflection. 
The intervention of a priest or magistrate would also be generally 
required, and their offices would naturally be used to procure, if 
possible, a reconciliation. Besides, the document provides that there 
shall be a real ground for the procedure, some " unseemly thing " 
in the woman. What this covered it is difficult to say. It could 
not be adultery, since that was punishable with death. The ques- 
tion was a matter of dispute among Jewish authorities down to the 
time of Christ as well as afterwards, and was differently answered 
by the rival schools of Hillel and Shammai. If the woman married 
another man subsequent to her divorce, reunion with her former 
husband, as we have before seen, was legally impossible, such a con- 
nection being regarded as a kind of adultery. 4 The obvious aim of 
the statute was to preserve the original covenant inviolate. If that 
were impossible or impracticable, its object was to encourage a single 
life with a view to a possible future reunion. It does not rise to the 
plane of Malachi, who says that God "hates putting away" and 

i Gen. 4 : 23 ; 16 : 1, 2 ; Ex. 20 : 17. 2 Matt. 5 : 31 ; 19 : 7, 8 ; Mark 10 : 4, 5. 3 D eut . 24 : 1-4 
* Num. 5 : 20. 



48 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

pathetically describes the altar of God as covered with the tears of 
"the wife of thy youth," "the wife of thy covenant," "thy com- 
panion," treacherously dealt with and "put away." 1 But it is in 
complete harmony with the remaining laws of the Pentateuch, which 
are largely educational in their design, and intended for a primitive 
stage of moral development. It is never to be forgotten what the 
surroundings of the Hebrew people were, and what their training 
hitherto had been. The divine revelation presupposes, and arranges 
for, advancing stages of spiritual life, and without them such a rev- 
elation would have been impossible. 

16. Much stricter regulations concerning divorce are found in the 
New Testament. In fact, our Lord abrogates for his disciples this 
law of Moses and forbids divorce with the privilege of remarrying, 
except for one crime, that of adultery. He even declares the union 
of a divorced woman with another man, except in case of her divorce 
on this ground, an adulterous connection, both for herself and her 
husband. Under Mosaic laws, moreover, a woman was not allowed 
to separate herself from her husband for any reason. Our Lord, it 
would seem, puts the woman in this respect on the plane with the 
man. His higher standard he bases on the original divinely-con- 
stituted relationship of the sexes in marriage, affirming that they 
thereby became one flesh. This mysterious 2 union could only be 
dissolved by sexual unfaithfulness or by death. 

The apostle Paul supplements, but otherwise leaves in full force, 
the words of our Lord. In case a difference arose between a hus- 
band and wife who were Christians, they were to become reconciled, 
if that were possible ; but if it were not, they had no permission to 
remarry. If one were a Christian and the other an unbeliever, still 
they were called to peace and continued union. If, however, the 
one unbelieving actually forsook his companion, it carried with it 
no permission to the Christian disciple to marry another person 
during her husband's lifetime. 3 Paul's general estimate of the mar- 
riage bond may be inferred from the parallel which he elsewhere 
draws between it and the union of Christ with his Church : " Hus- 
bands, love your wives, even as Christ also loved the church, and gave 
himself up for it. . . . Even so ought husbands also to love their 
own wives as their own bodies."* 

17. Concubinage. — In distinction from polygamy, by which is 
to be understood the custom of having more wives than one at the 

i Mai. 2 : 14-16. 2 Matt. 5 : 31, 32 ; 19 : 3-9 ; Mark 10 : 2-12. 3 i Cor. 7 : 10-1G. « Eph. 
5 : 25, 28 ; cf. Rev. 19 : 7. 



THE FAMILY. 49 

same time, we have to speak also of the practice of concubinage. 
However many wives there might be, before the law they were on 
the same general plane with one another. The concubine belonged 
to another category. She was something less than a wife, but, on 
the other hand, something more than a mistress, in the modern sense. 
In her acknowledged position, her rights were almost as jealously 
guarded in the Mosaic code as those of the wife herself. Her dis- 
abilities related chiefly to the matter of divorce, the rights of her 
children and her own position on the death of her lord. 1 The prac- 
tice of concubinage seems to have arisen at first from a desire for a 
numerous offspring, combined, in some cases, with the fact of the 
wife's barrenness. So it was with the patriarchs. The relation 
being here acquiesced in by the true wife, and the children of the 
concubine, moreover, being regarded in much the same light as 
those of the wife, the moral stigma naturally attaching to such a 
relationship largely disappeared. In no case were the children of 
such a connection looked upon as illegitimate. 

The principal distinction in fact between the wife and the concu- 
bine was that while the former was, in some sense, on an equality 
of social position w T ith her husband, the latter was a bondmaid. 
Not infrequently she was the servant of the wife ; 2 or a captive taken 
in war; 3 or one purchased of her father. The taking of Canaanitish 
women as concubines was forbidden. 4 The case of a foreign slave, 
not a captive taken in war, is not provided for in the law. A He- 
brew woman might become a concubine by first coming into the 
condition of a bondmaid ; but her position and treatment are made 
the subject of special restrictive legislation. 5 The whole system was 
clearly a perversion of the natural and divinely-intended relation of 
the sexes. God in the wisdom of his plans, which looked forward 
to the end of time, allowed it temporarily to exist among the He- 
brews, but under limitations unheard of among neighboring peoples. 
There is nowhere any attempt in the Bible to veil the terrible con- 
sequences resulting from the practice of polygamy and concubinage, 
even though they appear among those otherwise the godliest of men. 6 

18. In addition to those noticed elsewhere, there are three other 
forms of unchastity of which special cognizance is taken in the laws 
of the Pentateuch : the seduction of an unbetrothed maiden ; ordin- 
ary harlotry; and the same indulged in under the plea of doing 
honor to idols. In the first instance, the maiden was left unpunished. 

ljudg. 9:18. 2 Gen. 29 : 24, 29. 3 Deut. 21 : 10-14. * Deut, 7 : 3. 5 Ex. 21 : 7-11. 

6 Gen. 25 : 6 ; 27 : 1-42 ; 30 : 1-15 ; Judg. 19 : 22-30. 



50 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

Her seducer, however, was obliged to marry her, unless her father 
objected, in which case a heavy fine was imposed. Moreover, the 
right of divorcing his wife was forever taken from such seducer. 1 
Harlotry was forbidden in the early codes under the severest penal- 
ties. It was looked upon as a profanation of that which had been 
formally devoted to God. If the daughter of a priest yielded her- 
self to it, she was burnt. 2 Harlotry in the supposed service of an 
idol, the sum obtained by it being appropriated to the deity, was not 
uncommon among eastern peoples. The abhorrent crime forbidden 
in Leviticus 18 : 23; 20 : 15, 16, was widely practiced in some parts 
of Egypt. There are several allusions to it as a practice also in the 
Old Testament, as well as to the gross form of licentiousness charac- 
terized as sodomy. 3 

The strongest terms of reprobation known to the Hebrew language 
are directed against both. The children of prostitutes were excluded 
from the congregation of Israel by express statute, 4 and marriage 
with such persons was forbidden by the Jewish authorities in the 
time of our Lord. That licentiousness had great sway at different 
periods among the covenant people, owing to their peculiar suscep- 
tibility to foreign influences, there is ample evidence. Numerous 
warnings in the book of Proverbs 5 show to what extent the worst 
vices of heathenism had taken root in Palestine. It is clear, too, 
from many texts that at the beginning of the Christian era, and 
among the best circles, the necessity for urgent admonitions on the 
subject had not ceased. 6 

19. Social Position of the Hebrew Woman. — What was 
the relative position of woman among the Hebrews in Old and New 
Testament times ? Undoubtedly a false impression prevails respect- 
ing the matter. Her present position under Mohammedan influ- 
ences is improperly assumed as the standard of what it has always 
been in the East. Women appear in the Bible as engaged to a 
greater extent than is common with us in out-of-door occupations. 
In addition to managing the affairs of the household at home, pre- 
paring the meals, 7 spinning yarn, 8 and making garments, 9 they acted 
as water-carriers ; 10 they attended to the flocks; 11 they ground the 
grain for food, 12 and employed themselves in a variety of similar 

i Ex. 22 : 10, 17 ; Deut. 22 : 28, 29. 2 Lev. 19 : 20; 21 : 9 ; Dent. 23: 17, 18; E/.ck. 10 : 33-42. 

3 Gen. 19 : 4 ; Ex. 22 : 19 ; Job 30 : 14 ; 1 Kings 14 : 24 ; 2 Kings 23 : 7. * I >eut. 23 : 2. ■ S< 8 
chaps. 5 and 7. 6 Acts 15 : 20, 29 ; Rom. 1 : 26, 27 ; 1 Cor. 5 : 1 ; 6 : 9 ; 2 Cor. 12 : 21 ; Eph. 

4: 19; 1 Tim. 1 : 10; 1 Peter 4:3. i Gen. 18: 0; 2 Sam. 13 : 8. * Ex. 35 : 26; Prov. 31 : 19. 
'•' I Sain. 2 : 19 ; Prov. 31 : 21. 10 Gen. 21 : 15 ; 1 Sum. 9 : 11. « Gen. 29 : 6 ; Ex. 2 : 16. 

w Matt. 21: 11. 



THE FAMILY. 51 

occupations. It was impossible for them therefore to lead the care- 
fully-secluded life which by many they are supposed to have lived. 

As distinctions in rank did not exist among the Hebrews, females 
moved on the same social plane, not only with one another, but with 
the male sex. There is every evidence that as a class they were 
held in the highest respect by the latter. We find them, for ex- 
ample, in Saul's day, celebrating with triumphal processions the vic- 
tories of Israelitish heroes. 1 We find, still earlier, three of them in 
the prophetical office, 2 one of these being also judge. 3 The full right 
is accorded them of making complaints to the authorities w 7 hen they 
have been wronged and to claim justice at their hands.* And 
nothing could be more marked than the influence that, in the book 
of Proverbs, a wise and true woman is represented as exerting over 
her household, especially her sons. It is highly instructive, in fact, 
to note that the king Lemuel, who speaks in one of its most delight- 
ful chapters, is ready to acknowledge that what he there says was 
first taught him by a faithful mother. 5 One cannot fail, moreover, 
to recall the devout women who are mentioned in the gospels or their 
loving ministry to our Lord and his apostles. Notwithstanding the 
opposition that was aroused against our Lord's teaching and manner 
of life, not a whisper of suspicion is heard concerning these women, 
who humbly followed his steps from place to place that they might 
supply his needs; who were latest at his cross and earliest at his 
sepulchre. 

" What the family life among the godly in Israel must have been," 
says Edersheim, 6 "how elevated its tone, how loving its converse, or 
how earnestly devoted its mothers and daughters, appears sufficiently 
from the gospel story, from that in the book of Acts, and from no- 
tices in the apostolic letters. Women, such as the Virgin-mother, 
or Elisabeth, or Anna, or those who enjoyed the privileges of minis- 
tering to the Lord, or who, after his death, tended and watched his 
sacred body, could not have been quite solitary in Palestine ; we find 
their sisters in a Dorcas, a Lydia, a Phoebe, and those women of 
whom St. Paul speaks in Philippians 4 : 3, and whose lives he 
sketches in his epistles to Timothy and Titus. 

" Wives such as Priscilla, mothers such as that of Zebedee's chil- 
dren, or of Mark, or like St. John's 'elect lady,' or as Lois and 
Eunice, must have kept the moral atmosphere pure and sweet, and 

i 1 Sam. 18 : 6-8 ; cf. Ps. 68 : 25. 2 Ex. 15 : 20 ; 2 Kings 22 : 14. 3 j U( jg. 4 . 4. 4 Xum. 
27 : 1 ; 1 Kings 3 : 16-18 ; 2 Kings 6 : 26-29. & Title of chap. 31. e Sketches of Jewish Social 
Life, p. 159. 



52 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

shed precious light on their homes and on society, corrupt to the core 
as it was under the sway of heathenism. What and how they taught 
their households, and that even under the most disadvantageous out- 
ward circumstances, we learn from the history of Timothy. And 
although they were undoubtedly in that respect without many of 
the opportunities which we enjoy, there was one sweet practice of 
family religion, going beyond the prescribed prayers, which enabled 
them to teach their children from tenderest years to intertwine the 
Word of God with their daily devotion and daily life. For it was 
the custom to teach a child some verse of Holy Scripture beginning 
or ending with precisely the same letters as its Hebrew name, and 
this birthday text or guardian-promise the child was day by day to 
insert in its prayers." 

20. Social Life in General. — The ancient Hebrews, like 
Orientals generally, were an eminently social people. Their polit- 
ical constitution and their religious ceremonies contributed to this 
result. Many times in the popular code of Deuteronomy it is rep- 
resented in one form or another, that the whole family is expected to 
appear before the Lord at the sanctuary on the occasions of the so- 
called pilgrimage festivals: "And thou shalt rejoice in thy feast, 
thou, and thy son, and thy daughter, and thy manservant, and thy 
maidservant, and the Levite, and the stranger, and the fatherless, and 
the widow, that are within thy gates." * Other occasions for social 
gatherings were the sheep-shearings, the grain and fruit harvests, 
family festivals, such as the weaning of children, wedding seasons 2 
and the ordinary arrival of guests. Not only are occasional glimpses 
given us of social intercourse at the gates, in the market-places and 
around the public wells, but a multitude of incidental allusions show 
that the common life of the ancient Hebrew was far from being a 
prosaic or an ascetic one. 3 The Bible, however, recognizes the pos- 
sibility of carrying such social festivities to a criminal extreme. 4 

21. The duties of hospitality are repeatedly enjoined in the Mosaic 
law, as well as recommended by the noblest examples among the ear- 
liest patriarchs. 5 Among the covenant people its moral obligation 
was based on the relationship presupposed to exist between them and 
God. 6 And however weak and unworthy men might be in other 
respects, they seldom failed here. The conduct of Lot, for instance, 
was far from being exemplary in all respects ; but he was scrupu- 

i Dcut, 1G : 14. 2 Gen. 21 : 8 ; 1 Sam. 25 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 24 ; Luke 5 : 29 ; 15 : 23 ; John 2 : 2, 

3 Gen. 24 : 11 ; Judg. 21 : 19, 21 ; Ps. 69 : 12 ; Matt. 11 : 16. * Amos 6:4. & Gen. 18 : 6 ; 19 : 8, 
24 : 17 ; Ex. 2 : 20 ; Deut. 10 : 19. 6 p s< 39 : 12 . x p eter 2 : n. 



THE FAMILY. 53 

lously faithful to his duties as a host. 1 In the general absence of 
places of public entertainment the obligations of a true host required 
not only the provision of entertainment for man and beast as long 
as it might suit the convenience of visitors, but an unrequited hos- 
pitality. The offer of money in payment for services rendered would 
have been regarded as a direct insult. The acceptance of presents, 
however, from a guest is not looked upon, at least in modern times, 
as derogatory to the character of a worthy host. Hoav much in har- 
mony with the spirit of Christianity a generous hospitality is may be 
inferred from the many passages enjoining it in the New Testament. 2 
22. The warm, demonstrative temperament of Orientals displays 
itself in nothing more than in the manner in which they are accus- 
tomed to receive and welcome their guests. On the most ordinary 
occasions they bow low, the right hand being placed upon the left 
breast, and are profuse in their greetings and expressions of joy. 
Even on passing an acquaintance on the highway the Oriental, in- 
stead of giving the silent nod usual with us, goes through a series 
of movements and inquiries intended to show respect and interest, 
which consume no little time. It cannot have been otherwise in the 
earlier days, as we may judge from the command of our Lord to the 
seventy, " Salute no man by the way." 3 And we read of Abraham, 
when the three strangers pre- 
sented themselves at his tent, 
that he " bowed himself to the 
earth." 4 He did the same to 
the sons of Heth, when he met 
them for the purchase of a 
burying-place. 5 Sometimes, in 
case superiors were addressed, 
one fell upon his knees and 

touched his forehead tO the Modes of Salutation in the East. 

earth. It was so when Joseph's brethren greeted him as viceroy of the 
land of Egypt : " They came, and bowed down themselves to him with 
their faces to the earth." 6 Only in harmony with this general cus- 
tom were some of the prostrations made before our Lord ; they did 
not always carry with them the idea of paying him divine honors. 1 
The most common form of greeting found in the Bible is, " Peace 
be unto thee." 8 In the book of Ruth Boaz greets his workmen with 

» Gen. 19 : 1-10. 2 Matt. 25 : 35 ; Rom. 12 : 13 ; 1 Tim. 3 : 2 ; 5 : 10 ; Heb. 13 : 2 ; 1 Peter 4 : 9 
3 John 5. 3 Luke 10 : 4 ; cf. 2 Kings 4 : 29. * Gen. 18:2. & Gen. 23 : 7, 12. 6 Gen. 42 : 6 
43 : 28. i Matt. 17 : 14 ; Mark 10 : 17 ; but cf. Matt, 28 : 9. » 1 Sam. 25 : 6 ; 1 Chron. 12 : 18 
Mark 5: 34; cf. John 14 : 27. 




54 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

the words, ""The Lord be with you." And they answered him, 
"The Lord bless thee." 1 

23. Games and other Diversions. — It is unlikely that the 
Hebrews indulged to any great extent in diversion for its own sake. 
Such relaxation as came through social intercourse and witty repar- 
tee it is evident they did not scorn. 2 The riddle seems to have been 
a specially favorite intellectual pastime. 3 One of the motives that 
led the queen of Sheba to take her long journey to Jerusalem was 
that she might propound riddles to the wise Solomon.* It is not 
altogether clear what the "sport" which Samson made for the Phil- 
istines consisted in. 5 It may have been nothing more than the dilem- 
mas into which the giant was brought by his blindness, when he 
attempted to do what was required of him. The " play " between 
the soldiers of Joab and Abner, judging from its serious conse- 
quences, could have been called play only in irony. Possibly what 
began as simple fencing ended in a bloody hand-to-hand conflict. 6 
The prophet Isaiah refers metaphorically to the throwing of the 
ball. 7 It is known that ball-playing was practiced in Egypt at an 
early day. The balls were made of leather and sometimes of dried 
mud. The Egyptians were also acquainted with the simple games 
of odd and even, draughts and the casting of hoops. Jerusalem is 
spoken of in one passage of Scripture as a burdensome stone on 
which the nations would try their strength in vain. 8 Shooting at a 
mark seems to have been a pastime for royal youth and others in 
the time of David. 9 

Public games, on the other hand, as trenching on the sphere of 
their own religious festivals, were frowned upon by the Hebrews. 
In the time of the Maccabees, the introduction of the gymnasium 
and the sports connected with it into Jerusalem was regarded by 
the Jews as the height of profanation. 10 The numerous New Testa- 
ment references to Grecian games are incidental and for the purpose 
of illustration. In Acts 19 : 31, for example, mention is made of a 
theatre at Ephesus in connection with a disturbance caused by Paul's 
preaching. In another passage, the apostle refers, metaphorically 
it would appear, to contests with wild beasts in the same city. This 
was one of the most common entertainments of those cruel times. 
In other epistles there are allusions to the Isthmian and Olympic 
games. The conditions of competing in them, for instance, are re- 

i Ruth 2: 4. 2 Prov. 26 : 19 ; Jer. 15 : 17. 3 Judg. 14 : 12. M Kings 10: 1 ; 2 Chron. 
9:1. 6 Judg. 16 : 25. 6 2 Sam. 2 : 14. " Isa. 22 : 18. » Zecu. 12: 3; of. Ecclus. : 21. 

9 1 Sara. 20 : 20 ; Job 16 : 12. ™ i Mace. 1 : 14 ; 2 Mace. 4 : 12-14. 



THE FAMILY. 



55 



ferred to in order to enhance the sense of earnestness required in the 
Christian life ; so, too, the rigorous discipline to which contestants 
were previously subjected ; the array of spectators before whom such 
trials of courage and skill took place ; the high character demanded 
of the arbitrator, or judge ; the perishableness of the garlands ob- 
tained compared with the unfading rewards of the saints. 1 Two of 
these contests are especially emphasized in Paul's epistles, that of 
boxing and the foot-race. In a single passage he refers to both. 2 
In boxing the fist was not left bare, but bound around with the cestus, 
a piece of leather studded with nails. Every effective stroke from 
it made a bruise. And Paul says that he was not accustomed, in con- 
tendiag with his own fleshly lusts, to "beat the air" with ineffectual 




Foot-race. {Adapted from a View of the Circus Flora at Borne. Montfaucon.) 

blows. For the foot-race there was a special place set apart, called a 
stadium. The spectators occupied raised seats along its sides. The 
end from which the start was made was open. At the other end, in 
plain view of the contestants, was the goal, and the judge sat beside 
it rewards in hand. Every part of this scene is made use of in urging 
ivpon the Christian discipleship the seriousness of their calling. 3 

24. Servants. — At the time the Mosaic laws were given both 
voluntary and involuntary servitude existed as institutions through- 
out the East. These laws could not ignore such a state of things. 
In harmony with their treatment of other existing social and polit- 
ical evils, their first effort was to alleviate and modify the worst fea- 
tures of this one. The point of view, in fact, from which slavery 
was regarded in Israel was entirely changed by making the institu- 
tion a symbol of the nation's relationship to God himself. This is 

i 1 Cor. 4 : 9 ; 9 : 25 ; Phil. 3 : 14 ; 4 : 1 ; 1 Thess. 2 : 19 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 5 ; 4 : 8 ; Heb. 10 : 33 ; Rev. 7 : 9. 
2 1 Cor. 9 : 26. 3 Acts 13 : 25 ; 20 : 24 ; Heb. 12 : 1, 2. 



56 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

the motive most commonly urged for leniency and mildness toward 
those in servitude: "And thou shalt remember that thou wast a 
servant in the land of Egypt, and the Lord thy God brought thee 
out thence." 1 Slavery as it existed in Israel under Mosaic regula- 
tions would not have satisfied in all respects the ethical standard of 
Christianity, which required that the fugitive slave Onesimus be re- 
ceived back "no longer as a servant," but more than a servant, a 
"brother beloved." 2 But as it respected Hebrew servants the 
Mosaic laws moved even on that high plane ; while with regard to 
others, they did not fall so very far below it. Not only was a hu- 
mane treatment of servants the rule in Israel, it so far degenerated 
into over-indulgence and laxity, in the later time, that it called forth 
a rebuke on the part of at least one earnest Jewish writer. 3 

25. It is to be remembered, then, that while Israel received the 
institution of slavery from the patriarchal period, it began at once 
to limit its extent and to correct its abuses. The laws of the Penta- 
teuch recognize two classes of servants — Hebrews and foreigners. 
A Hebrew might become a bondservant also in two ways. He might 
voluntarily assume it on account of poverty, or be forced into it for 
the same reason. 4 The spirit of the Mosaic laws, however, is clearly 
against any kind of involuntary servitude for Hebrews. This is 
shown by such statutes as those of Deuteronomy regarding the giving 
of pledges and the like. 5 In no case was it permitted to sell a He- 
brew man or woman to a foreigner outside of Palestine. In Pales- 
tine the condition of servitude for such was relieved of many of the 
hardships attaching to it elsewhere. It was, for example, enjoined 
that the bondman should not be looked upon as a slave but as a 
" hired servant," a brother of the same race and an inheritor of the 
same promises. On the expiration of his term of service, he was not 
to be sent away empty. His master was required to load him down 
with gifts from the flock, the wine-press and the threshing-floor. 6 

26. A special limit of the rigors of servitude among the Hebrews 
was the period fixed for its duration. In case it was for debt, it 
would naturally cease when satisfaction had been rendered, or the 
year of jubilee intervened. This epoch, that is, the fiftieth year, 
terminated absolutely all servitude throughout the entire land. And 
in no instance could servitude continue for a longer time than six 
years, except on the election of the bondman himself. If he chose 
to remain indefinitely with his master, he was allowed to do so upon 

* Lev. 25 : 42-55 ; Deut, 5 : 15 ; 15 : 15. 2 Phil. 16. 3 Ecclus. 33 : 24, 25, 28 ; of. Prov. 1!) : 10. 
* Lev. 25 : 39, 47 ; Matt. 18 : 25. & Deut. 24 : 6, 7, 17, 18. 6 Lev. 25 : 39, 40, 43 ; Deut. 15 : 13-15. 



THE FAMILY. 57 

complying with certain formalities which served to prevent oppression 
and fraud. 1 If an Israelite were servant to a foreigner living in Pales- 
tine, his only hope of freedom was in being redeemed, or in the recur- 
rence of the year of jubilee. 2 The law applied to men and womeu 
alike in service, except in the case of a daughter who had been parted 
with by her father on the understanding that she was to become the 
wife of her master. If this purpose were not carried out, she might 
be redeemed by the repayment of her dowry. If it were carried out, 
special care was taken that the rights of a wife were secured to her. 3 

27. Foreigners held in slavery among the Hebrews were in most 
cases captives taken in war ; but some, it is likely, were procured by 
purchase or by arrangement with foreign immigrants who found a 
home in Palestine. This form of servitude, to say the least, was not 
encouraged by either the spirit or the letter of the Hebrew laws. 
At the time of the exile foreign servants made up but one-seventh 
of the entire population. 4 In this form of servitude, too, the contrast 
between Israel and neighboring peoples was most marked. By the 
rite of circumcision the foreign servant received a kind of adoption 
into the Israelitish community. 5 Like all others, he was considered 
entitled to the seventh day of rest. 6 He might even attain to the 
highest social positions. If the servant of a priest, he was allowed 
to eat of the holy things. 7 His life Avas to be held as sacred by his 
master as that of the freeman. Slighter injuries to his person were 
not indeed provided for in the laws of the Pentateuch, the self-interest 
of the master being concerned to guard against them. Beyond a 
certain limit, however, it was required that compensation should be 
made for personal injuries to the extent of manumission. 8 

28. We nowhere read in the Bible of slave-markets for the free 
selling of slaves. It contains no evidence that bondmen among the 
Hebrews were, as a rule, otherwise than well treated. AVe learn of 
no uprisings on their part, Cases of flight seem to have been rare. 9 
The spirit of the Mosaic books on this whole matter is well illus- 
trated in the instructions of Deuteronomy concerning fugitive slaves 
who took refuge in Israel : " Thou shalt not deliver unto his master 
a servant which is escaped from his master unto thee : he shall dwell 
with thee, in the midst of thee, in the place which he shall choose 
within one of thy gates, where it liketh him best ; thou shalt not 
oppress him." 10 The underlying motive which was to govern in this 

1 Ex. 21 : 2, 4-6 ; Deut. 15 : 12 ; Josephus, Aniiq., 4, 8 : 28 ; 16, 1 : 1. 2 Lev. 25 : 47-55. 3 Ex. 
21 : 7-11. * Ezra 2 : 65. & Ex. 12 : 44 ; Deut. 12 : 12, 18 ; 16 : 11, 14. c D eu t. 5 : 14. ' Lev. 
22 : 11 ; 1 Chron. 2 : 35. » Ex. 21 : 20, 21, 26, 27 ; Lev. 19 : 20 ; 24 : 17-22. » 1 Sam. 25 : 10. 

io Deut. 23 : 15. 



58 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

as in all the other relationships of life was that which our Lord sums 
up as the essence of the law : supreme love to God and a love to 
one's neighbor equalling that to one's self. 1 Job accordingly asks, " If 
I did despise the cause of my manservant or of my maidservant, 
when they contended with me: what then shall I do when God riseth 
up ? and when he visiteth, what shall I answer him ?" 2 

According to Philo, the Essenes held that involuntary servitude 
was subversive of the natural rights of man. 3 The moral and relig- 
ious principles introduced by Christianity no doubt directly tended 
toward the abolishment of the institution even in that mild form of 
it practiced among the ancient Hebrews. That it proposed no vio- 
lent overturning of existing institutions, however, is evident from 
the teachings of Paul. 4 The inner spiritual freedom of the Christian 
was the essential thing. In comparison with it freedom of the per- 
son was quite subordinate. On this broad ground the New Testa- 
ment treatment of the subject may be sufficiently accounted for. 

29. Death and Burial. — The customs of the Hebrews in the 
matter of death and burial did not differ essentially from those 
of other eastern peoples. It was their practice to take formal and 
affectionate leave of those about to die, and to close tenderly their 
eyes. 5 The body was then washed and wrapped in a linen cloth, 
sometimes, for the sake of preserving its form, each member by itself. 6 
When circumstances allowed it, sweet-smelling spices were laid among 
the folds of the enveloping shroud. It has been supposed by some 
that a part of the large amount of spices used on the occasion of 
our Lord's burial was intended to be burnt in his honor, such a cus- 
tom being not unknown in the case of distinguished persons. 7 But 
it is improbable. A great deal of luxury was displayed at this pe- 
riod even in ordinary burials, and this fact, as well as their great love 
for the Saviour, would have influenced the disciples not a little in 
their attentions to 'his body. 8 

30. The practice of embalming was not general among the He- 
brews. 9 Burial or entombment took place soon after death, usually 
on the same day. This was for the reason that the touch of a dead 
body and its presence in a house carried with it ceremonial defilement, 
and that, in consequence of the warm climate, mortification rapidly 
set in. 10 This usage, however, was not invariably followed. 11 The 
body was ordinarily borne to its final resting-place either exposed on 

i Luke 10: 27. 2 j b 31 : 13, 14. 3 Richter's ed., vi. IS.!. * 1 Cor. 7:20-24; Gal. 8:28; 5:1; 
Eph. 6:5; Col. 3 : 22-25. 6 Qen. 46 : 4 ; 50 : 1. 6 Matt. 27 : 59 ; John 1 1 : 44. "' 2 Chroil. 16 : 14. 
s Josephus, Antiq., 15, 3 : 4 ; 17, 8 : 3. » Gen. 50 : 2, 26. ™ Matt. 'J : 23 ; Acts 5 : :> ; 8 : 2. 

» Gen. 23: 2, 19. 



THE FAMILY. 59 

a bier, or in an open casket which rested on a bier, or, rarely, on a 
funeral car. The order of a funeral procession in Judsea was first 
the women ; then the hired mourners ; third, the bier with bearers 
who were frequently changed ; then the chief mourners and special 
friends ; and finally, the general company. Women at the present 
day, in the Orient, are not expected to appear in a funeral procession ; 
but this was not true at the time of our Lord. 1 Nor was it considered 
an impropriety for women at that time to visit the graves of dear 
friends to weep there. It seems to have been expected that the sis- 
ters of Lazarus would do so. 2 It is an interesting fact that rabbin- 
ical law provided for the opening of the tomb on the third day to 
ascertain the condition of the dead form. 

31. The Israelites, contrary to the later practice of the Greeks and 
Romans, but in harmony with that of most other nations, notably 
the Egyptians, interred, and did not burn, their dead. All recorded 
instances to the contrary took place under exceptional circumstances, 
as in the case of punishment for odious crimes, or in times of pesti- 
lence and war. 3 The men of Jabesh-gilead burned the bones of Saul 
and his sons ; but it was only to preserve them from insult. After 
being reduced to ashes they were carefully buried. 4 The passages 
Jer. 34 : 5 ; 2 Chron. 16 : 14; 21 : 19, simply refer to funeral pyres 
in honor of kings, and not to the burning of the body itself. The 
interment of the body was^ deemed essential. To leave it exposed, as 
did, for example, the Persians, to become the prey of birds and beasts, 
was regarded as the highest of indignities. 5 The law made it bind- 
ing on the Israelites to bury criminals on the day of their execution. 
One of the most touching scenes recorded in the historical books of 
the Old Testament is the account of Rizpah, a concubine of Saul, 
who through an entire summer watched the remains of his seven 
sons to prevent this disgrace from coming upon them. 6 

32. It is also interesting to note that the Hebrews were accustomed 
to inter families together. 7 It is the more remarkable, therefore, that 
Joseph of Arimathsea offered what seems to have been the sepulchre 
of his family as a burying-place for Jesus. 8 Care should be taken, 
however, not to confound this custom of burying with the idea which 
the Israelite cherished of being at death gathered to his fathers. 9 
The distinction between the grave and the under- world is made 
early in the book of Genesis. Abraham, for instance, was buried 

i Luke 7 : 12. 2 John 11 : 31. 3 Lev. 20 : 14 ; 21 : 9 ; Amos 6 : 10. * 1 Sam. 31 : 8-13. 

6 1 Kings 13 : 22 ; 14 : 11 ; Jer. 16 : 4 ; Ezek. 29 : 5 ; Tobit 2:3. 6 2 Sam. 21 : 10. * Gen. 47 : 
29, 30 ; Judg. 8 : 32 ; 16 : 31 ; Ruth 1 : 17. 8 Matt. 27 : 57-59. *> Matt, 27 : 60 ; cf. 2 Chron. 

24 : IS, 




60 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

in the cave of Machpelah beside his wife, Sarah ; while it is said of 
him that he was gathered to his people. 1 

33. Eastern peoples are exceedingly demonstrative in their ex- 
pressions of grief over departed friends. In all periods down to the 

present day it has been customary to hire 
professional mourners, generally women, 2 to 
join their lamentations with those of the 
family circle. The mourning begins at the 
moment of death, and is kept up with little 
intermission until after the funeral. 3 Grief 
is expressed not alone by weeping and loud- 
cries, but by beating the breast, plucking out 
the hair, and scattering dust upon the head. 
Male members of the household rend their 
garments, put on sackcloth, pluck out the 
beard, throw themselves upon the earth, 
Sitting in Sackcloth. an( j g aD0U f, shoeless and with veiled faces. 

David on the occasion of Abner's assassination refused to eat bread 
until the day was over. 4 

In some cases the tears of mourners were caught in bottles and 
buried with the departed as a token of affection. 5 This practice is 
still kept up in Persia ; the tears, however, instead of being buried 
with the dead are carefully preserved as a charm. Tear-bottles are 
one of the most common objects found in ancient tombs. The Is- 
raelites were forbidden in the book of Deuteronomy to cut themselves 
or "make any baldness" between the eyes for the dead. 6 The law 
seems to be but a repetition of one found for both priests and people 
in an earlier book. 7 It is evident, however, that the heathen custom 
against which it was directed did not wholly disappear, since we find 
it still in vogue in Jeremiah's time. 8 Rending the garment, as a 
token of grief, became at a later period largely a matter of form, 
the master of ceremonies ripping down the outer robe a few inches 
on the breast where there was a seam. 

34. The usual period of mourning lasted seven days ; but on ex- 
traordinary occasions it was extended. 9 During the period of the 
second Jewish commonwealth, feasts were often given at funerals 
which were occasions of great extravagance and display. 10 There is 
no valid evidence that it was customary in the times covered by the 

i Gen. 25 : 8. « But cf. 2 Ohron. 35 : 25 ; Jer. 9 : 19, 20. » Micab 1:8; Mark 5 : 38, 39. 

4 Gen. 37:34; 2 Sara. 13:31; 15:30; 19:4; Job 2:12; Pa. 30:11; Amos 8:10; John 3:6. 
& Ps. 56 : 8. o Dent. 14 : 1. * Lev. 1!) : 27, 28 ; 21 : 5. » Jer. 7 : 29 ; 16 : G ; 41 : 5. '-' Gen. 50 : 
10 ; Num. 20 : 29 ; Deut. 34 : 8 ; 1 Sam. 31:13. ™ Josophus, Wars of Jews, 2, 1 : 1. 



THE FAMILY. 61 

canonical books of the Old Testament. Certain passages quoted 
in proof of it have another meaning. They simply show that food 
was frequently sent by friends to the house of mourning that the 
claims of hospitality, which were greatly enlarged on such occasions, 
might be properly met. 1 This seems to be the meaning of that pas- 
sage in Deuteronomy also where worshippers at the altar say that, 
so faithfully have they discharged their obligations respecting the 
tithes, that no part of them has been expended even in such seasons 
of special need as the fuuerals of neighbors and friends : " I have not 
eaten thereof in my mourning, . . . nor given thereof for the dead." 2 
The custom of making an offering for the dead appears first in an 
apocryphal book in the century preceding the Christian era. 3 Nat- 
urally much emphasis is laid on this passage by Roman Catholic 
writers in justification of their practice of praying for " souls in 
purgatory." 

35. With rare exceptions in favor of distinguished persons, inter- 
ment took place outside of the tow T n.* It is unlikely that even in the 
case of the poorest classes the body was simply covered up in the 
ground, as the custom now is with us. The origin of the expression 
"potter's field," found in Matt. 27 : 7, may well have arisen from the 
fact that places from which clay had been taken for pottery were 
afterwards made use of as graves. There can be little doubt, al- 
though it is a matter somewhat disputed, that, as a rule, the dead 
among the Hebrews were laid away in vaults, that is, natural or art- 
ificial excavations in the earth or rock. These structures varied in 
form and arrangement according to the taste, means or needs of their 
owners. The rabbinical rule for a sepulchre was that it should be 
excavated six cubits square, or six cubits by eight. The vaults or 
receptacles for bodies were placed horizontally along three sides. 
On the remaining side was the approach to the tomb through a court, 
covered only on the top, and sufficiently large to accommodate the 
bier and its bearers. 

The door might be rectangular and of solid stone, with a flange 
fitting into a socket for a hinge, both of the same material. Or it 
might be a cylindrical stone rolling in a groove to the right or the 
left of the opening. Or there might be a regular door of stone sup- 
ported by hinges, against which a stone was rolled for further protec- 
tion. It is not possible to say with certainty which of these methods 
was followed in the tomb of Joseph of Arimathaea. 5 The fact that 

i 2 Sam. 3 : 35 ; Jer. 16 : 7 ; Ezek. 24 : 17 ; Hos. 9:4. 2 Deut. 26 : 14. *2 Mace. 12 : 43, 

* 1 Sam. 25 : 1 ; Luke 7 : 12 ; John 11 : 30, 31. & Mark 16 ; 1-4 ; Jokn 20 : 1. 



62 DOMESTIG ANTIQUITIES. 

it was sealed by order of Pilate would suggest that something more 
at least than a simple boulder was used in closing its entrance. 1 The 
sealing of tombs appears to have been common throughout the East. 
Quite recently they have been found in Egypt, dating back to the 
time of the exodus, with their seals still intact upon them. Caskets 




Tomb Open. Tomb Closed and Sealed. 

or sarcophagi for the dead were uncommon except in the case of dis- 
tinguished or wealthy persons. They are now sometimes found in 
use in the Orient as drinking-troughs. 

36. All graves throughout the East at the present day are marked 
by some sign : the humblest, by a simple uninscribed stone or a cover- 
ing of tiles ; those of the rich, by a pillar of hewn stone bearing an 
inscription. Such was doubtless the practice in the remotest periods. 2 
Simon, one of the Maccabsean heroes, built a very elaborate mauso- 
leum over the "sepulchre of his father and his brethren, and raised 
it aloft to the view, with hewn stone behind and before." 3 In the 
time of our Lord, too, it was customary to erect monuments of solid 
masonry for the great and those reputed to be saints. These their 
admirers and friends covered over with mortar, which was made 
more conspicuous by frequent whitening. 4 Subsequent to the exile 
it was looked upon as a religious duty to whiten, at the close of the 
rainy season, the tombs found in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, that 
is, before the cycle of annual festivals again began. This was to 
prevent persons from coming upon them unawares and contract- 
ing ceremonial defilement. 5 Natural caves and forsaken mining 
shafts were frequently used as places of interment, in the same way, 
it would seem, as the so-called " potter's field " near Jerusalem. 

i Matt. 27 : G6. 2 Gen. 35 : 20 ; 2 Sam. 18:18; 2 Kings 23 : 17 ; Ezek. 39 : 15. 3 i Mace. 13 : 
27-30. •» Matt. 23:27. & Cf. Luke 11 : 44. 



THE FAMILY. 



63 



Rocky places were most sought after for such purposes; though 
tombs were also built in gardens and in the vicinity of groves. 1 On 
the other hand, a pile of stones 
heaped upon a grave was some- 
times a mark of special indignity. 2 
37. In the later periods, after 
the Jews became widely scattered 
among the nations, one of their 
strongest and most unconquerable 
desires was to be buried in the 
soil of Palestine. A beautiful rab- 
binical story will illustrate not 
only the charming family life that 
in all periods was common among 
the Israelites, but the delightful 
spirit with which the most trying 
dispensations of Providence were 
often received. " On a certain Sab- 
bath Pabbi Mier was engaged in 
the sacred college. In his absence 
his two sons had died. To spare 

her husband SOme hours of grief, Traditional Tomb of Absalom, near Jerusa- 
and not tO Convert the joy of the lem ' {From an original Photograph.) 

Sabbath into mourning, the mother repressed her feelings, and con- 
cealed the sad tidings. The Sabbath was past and its holy exercises 
ended, when she asked her husband whether it were not duty readily 
and cheerfully to restore to the rightful owner any property, how- 
ever pleasant, which had been intrusted for safe keeping. When the 
astonished rabbi answered the strange inquiry in the affirmative, 
his weeping wife led him to the bed on which the lifeless remains of 
their two children were stretched, reminding him that he whose 
they rightfully were had only asked back what, for a time, he had 
intrusted to their keeping." 3 




i 2 Kings 21 : 18, 26 ; Isa. 22 : 16 ; 14 : 19 ; John 19 : 41. 
sheim, Bible Educator, iv.. 270. 



Joshua 7 : 26 ; 8 : 29. 



Eder- 



CHAPTER III. 

FOOD AND MEALS. 

1. The food of the ancient Hebrews was, in general, of the simplest 
description, and its preparation was no less simple. Articles most 
commonly found on the table were bread made from wheat or barley, 
fish, honey, milk, and a profusion of vegetables. The use of animal 
food, excluding fish, was rare with the common people. In the in- 
teresting description of the land of Canaan occurring in the book of 
Deuteronomy, it is said to be a " land of wheat and barley, and vines 
and fig trees and pomegranates ; a land of oil olives and honey ; a 
land wherein thou shalt eat bread without scarceness, thou shalt not 
lack anything in it." 1 Grain has always grown with great luxuri- 
ance in Palestine, as it still does throughout the whole of western 
Asia. A single stalk of wheat not infrequently produces more than 
a score of stems at once, each one terminating with a full ear. 
Grain began to be exported by the Israelites as early as the reign of 
Solomon. 2 

2. Preparations of Grain. — Grain, in its native state, was some- 
times used as food. A marked example will be recalled in the life of, 
our Lord, where the disciples were censured on one occasion by the 
Pharisees for plucking ears for this purpose on the Sabbath. 3 More 
frequently the kernels were parched before they were eaten. AVe 
find "parched corn," that is, grain, referred to, along with fresh ears, 
as an article of food in the Mosaic period. 4 It is one of the things, 
too, which Boaz, in the beautiful story of Ruth the Moabitess, is rep- 
resented as providing for his workmen ; and which the prudent Abi- 
gail sent to David and his men while tarrying in the wilderness of 
Parau. 5 .Then as now, it is likely, the parching was done over the 
fire by means of an iron pan, or in some similar way. The grain 
thus prepared, while still fresh and tender, was by no means an un- 
palatable dish. Another of the more simple preparations of grain 
for food was to soak or boil it slightly in water and then, after drying 
and crushing it, serve it up to be eaten much as is the dish called 
" groats " among ourselves. 6 

iDeut. 8:8,9. 8Ezek.27:17. » Matt. 12 : 1, 2 ; cf. 2 Kings 4 : 42. ••Lev. 23: 14. BRuth 

2 : 11 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 17 ; 25 : 18 ; 2 Sain. 17 : 28. 6 Num. 15 : 20 (margin) ; Noli. 10 : 37 ; Ezck. 44 : 30. 
64 



FOOD AND MEALS. 



65 



3. Ordinarily before being converted into food the kernel was 
more thoroughly ground. The contrivances for reducing it to meal 
were of the most rudimental kind. Originally a pestle and mortar 
were used, and long after other methods were resorted to this was 
retained along with them. In fact the pestle and mortar are still 
regarded as an almost indispensable part of the household appoint- 
ments in the Orient. The first biblical notice we have of the mortar 
is in Numbers 11:8, where the manna is said to have been pulver- 
ized by means of it. The commonness of its use in the time of the 
kings may be inferred from the sarcastic remark of the author of 
Proverbs 27 : 22, that though one " bray a fool in a mortar with a 
pestle among bruised corn, yet will not his foolishness depart from 
him." 

Along with the mortar, " mills " are also spoken of as in use at an 
early date. 1 Doubtless the simple handmill is generally meant. It 
is extant in the Orient of to-day, 
scarcely changed, if at all, and is 
known to the Arabs by its old He- 
brew name. It consists of a couple 
of cylindrical stones, from one to two 
feet in diameter, and about six inches 
thick. Each stone has a separate 
name. The lower one is firmly 
planted on the grounoVand provided 
with a convex upper surface on which 
the concave under surface of the 
other stone revolves. The upper 
stone or "rider" has a hole through 
its centre into which the grain is 
dropped and through which also runs a shaft, or standard. By this 
standard the stone is held in its place. A handle attached to the 
rider near its outer rim enables a person sitting near to turn it around 
and grind the grain which is fed in with the hand that is free. If 
the stones be larger, two persons are required. Such service was 
usually assigned to women or servants. 2 It was to women thus en- 
gaged that our Saviour referred when he said that of two women 
grinding at the mill one should be taken and one left. 3 

It was forbidden in the Mosaic law, for humane reasons, that the 
whole mill, or the upper millstone, should be taken in pledge, since 
it was taking "the life," that is, the means of sustaining life, in 

i Ex. 11:5. s Job 31 : 10 : Isa. 47 : 2 : Lam. 5 : 13. 3 Matt. 24 : 41. 




Eastern Handmill. 



66 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

pledge. 1 As it was customary to bake Dearly every day, every large 
family would be supplied with a mill of this sort; and nothing could 
have been more noticeable iu an Oriental town than the noise caused 
by their constant use. Several allusions are made to this circum- 
stance in the Bible. 2 At a later period mills of a larger capacity, 
and worked by animals, came into use. It is to one of this sort that 
reference is made in Matthew 18 : 6, where the Kevised Version 
renders by a "great millstone" and still more literally in the margin, 
" a millstone turned by an ass." The very hardest material being 
selected for the lower stone, the " nether millstone" became a syno- 
nym for what was extremely hard. In Job, for example, it is said 
of the crocodile, " His heart is as firm as a stone ; yea, firm as the 
nether millstone." 

4. Bread was made principally from wheat flour. That which 
was made from barley was mostly used by the very poor, or in times 
of special need. 3 The Bible in a number of passages clearly discrim- 
inates between the two kinds. 4 Other materials than these were 
sometimes used in making bread ; but it was generally from neces- 
sity rather than choice. The prophet Ezekiel, for example, was in- 
structed, in token of extreme distress, " Take thou also unto thee 
wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentils, and millet, and spelt, and 
put them in one vessel, and make thee bread thereof." 5 Millet is a 
species of grain of which broom corn is a variety. Its kernels are 
now often parched and eaten unground in the East. Spelt is also 
known as " German wheat," and is much used for food in Germany 
and Switzerland. There are two kinds of wheat flour recognized in 
the Old Testament, a coarser and a finer variety. They are distin- 
guished by different names, and the latter was chiefly, though not 
exclusively, used in the meal offerings of the sanctuary. Both words 
are found together in Genesis 18:6, where Sarah is bidden by her 
husband to prepare food for their unexpected guests. The patriarch 
says literally, " Be quick ! Three seahs of flour, fine flour ! Knead 
and make cakes !" On the other hand, it was the coarser sort that 
wasted not in the barrel of the widow of Zarephath. 6 

Bread is also known in .the Bible as leavened and unleavened. 
The latter was prescribed by law to the Hebrews for certain occa- 
sions, namely, when offered in connection with sacrifices made by 
fire, and for general use during the feast of the passover. There are 
two different words used in the original Hebrew for leaven ; one of 

i Dout. 24 : f>. 2 Eccles. 12:4; Jer. 25 : 10 ; Matt. 6 : 11. 3 2 Kings 1 : 12 ; John : 9, 13. 

4 2 Kings 7:1; Hos. 3:2; Rev. 0:0. 6 Ez Ic 4 : 9. G 1 Kings 17 : \\. 



FOOD AND MEALS. 67 

them being found in five passages only, 1 the other, in all the rest. 
The most common way of producing fermentation in flour or meal 
was to use a piece of dough which had itself been thoroughly leav- 
ened. When circumstances required it, bread and cakes were made 
without waiting to leaven or rais>e them. We find this fact men- 
tioned occasionally as showing the haste of the meal. 2 This was 
notably the case on the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, and 
the passover loaf was its memorial. 3 Metaphorical references to 
leaven are somewhat prominent in the Scriptures; and it is a singu- 
lar fact that it is thought of in both a good and bad sense. Our 
Lord, for example, refers to it in one place to represent the myste- 
rious, penetrating influence of Christian doctrine : where he speaks 
of the leaven which " a woman took, and hid in three measures of 
meal, till it was all leavened." 4 In another passage he puts his 
disciples on their guard against "the leaven of the Pharisees and 
Sadducees." 5 This, too, was subtle and pervasive, but only for evil. 
It is quite a different view of the subject that is presented in the 
epistles of Paul. He thinks of leaven as producing decomposition, 
and hence as a most forcible image of the evil effects of sin. 6 

After kneading and raising the dough, the latter process sometimes 
requiring the entire night and being hastened by a gentle heat, it was 
usually divided for baking into round, flat pieces, about the width 
of the outstretched hand and the thickness of the finger. 7 A com- 
parison made by our Lord suggests the resemblance of these pieces 
to flat stones ; and no doubt they were sometimes almost as hard as 
stone. 8 Three of them, when baked, seem to have been required for 
the meal of one person. 9 They were sometimes indented and oil 
poured upon them previous to baking. 10 They were then called by a 
different name. At other times, the dough was rolled out thin like 
wafers and received an outer coating of oil after it was baked. 11 At 
still other times, its palatability was heightened by a second knead- 
ing and the addition of some ingredient now unknown, but possibly 
stimulating seeds. 12 The dough was kneaded, it is likely, much as it 
now is in the East, by pressing it between the hands, or by passing 
it from one hand to the other. In Egypt, as the monuments show, 
it was put in baskets and trodden with the feet. 

5. Baking. — The most primitive method of baking was to place 
the prepared dough upon hot coals, or underneath them, with a 

1 Ex. 12 : 15, 19 ; 13 : 7 ; Lev. 2:11; Deut. 16:4. 2 Gen. 19 : 3 ; Judg. 6 : 19 ; 1 Sam. 28 : 24. 

3 Ex. 12 : 34, 39. * Matt. 13 : 33. & Matt. 16 : 6. M Cor. 5 : 6-8 ; Gal. 5:9. 7 Hos. 7 : 

4, 6 ; Luke 13 : 21. 8 Matt. 7:9. 9 Luke 11 : 5. io Ex. 29 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 19. « Num. 
6 : 15, 19. 12 2 Sam. 13 : 6. 



>8 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 




slight covering of ashes. At other times, heated stones were em- 
ployed, or a simple flat pan. A danger in the latter case, unless spe- 
cial care was exercised, was that the dough would be but partially 
baked. In allusion to this circumstance, the prophet Hosea says of 
Ephraim that he is " a cake not turned." ! Ovens were also used at 
an early period. They were of two kinds — the portable and the 
fixed. The former is the article usually referred to in the Bible 

when the oven is mentioned. It was 
little more than a large-sized clay 
pot, or jar, with an opening at the bot- 
tom for the fire and sometimes in the 
side for putting in the dough. A fire 
of twigs or dry grass was kindled 
under or within it, and when well 
heated, the articles to be baked were 
plastered on its sides. Nearly every 
family was provided with an oven of 
this kind. It was regarded, indeed, 
The Arab's Portable Oven. as a mar k f misfortune for several 

^SiSiteti^KSSiU families to be obliged to use the same 

is placed, through the upper opening. On the top 2 

are "loaves" of bread, leaning against the rim, OVeil. 

The fixed oven, too, was often ex- 
ceedingly rude in its construction. It might be nothing more than 
a hole in the ground, with its sides plastered or built up with stones. 
Possibly a flue at the bottom supplied a draft for the flame. A 
fire was kindled inside of it and kept burning until it became 
thoroughly heated. These methods of baking are still practiced by 
the nomads of the East ; but in the towns public ovens are found, 
and the occupation of the baker is one of the best known. That 
this was equally true in ancient times appears from many texts of 
Scripture. 3 At the present day the large town bakeries in the East 
are provided with brick ovens, secured by iron doors much resem- 
bling those in use among ourselves. Among the curiosities revealed 
by the recent uncovering of ancient Pompeii are ovens of this sort. 
In one of them were found no less than eighty perfectly-formed 
loaves of bread. Figurative references to the oven or furnace are 
frequent in the Bible. 4 

The Hebrews seem generally to have eaten their bread warm, and 
it was not cut but broken. From this fact the expression " to break 



i Hos. 7:8. 2 Lov. 26 : 20. 
21:9; Lam. 5:10: Mai. 4: 1. 



3 Gen. 40 : 22 ; 1 Sam. 8 : 13 ; Jer. 37 : 21 ; Hos. 7:4. * Ps. 



FOOD AND MEALS. 69 

bread" came to be synonymous with eating or taking a meal. 1 
Bread was seldom eaten alone. It was either moistened with the 
sour wine of the country, as appears to have been the case in Kuth 
2 : 14 ; with the gravy which was ordinarily served up with the 
heavier dishes ; or was eaten as an accompaniment to other food. 
On two memorable occasions this general custom is illustrated in the 
life of our Lord. 2 

6. Milk. — Milk and its products have always been much more 
generally used as food by the peoples of the East than by ourselves. 
Not only is the milk of cows made use of, but that of sheep, camels, 
goats and other animals. When the New Testament speaks of milk 
as suitable for babes, it is not with the purpose of disparaging its 
nutritive and substantial qualities or implying that it is suitable 
only for babes. 3 The Scriptures repeatedly make it, with honey, a 
symbol of the highest prosperity. The son of Sirach says, "The 
principal of all needful things for man's life are water, and fire, and 
iron, and salt, and flower of wheat, and honey, aud milk, bloud 
of the grape, and oil, and clothing." 4 

Milk was no doubt sometimes drunk fresh, but seems to have been 
preferred when sour or curdled. Abraham offered his guests on one 
occasion both butter and milk. By " butter " here, and elsewhere 
when found in the Old Testament, it is doubtful if anything more 
is meant than coagulated milk, the article now known throughout 
the East as leben. At least it is often difficult to discriminate 
between the terms employed for butter and those applied to different 
varieties of cheese. One might suppose, for example, from a pas- 
sage in the book of Proverbs, 5 that the churning of milk to make 
butter was well known to the ancient Israelites ; but the word ren- 
dered " to churn " has rather the signification " to press," and might 
better refer, as it would seem, to some process of cheese-making. 
Still, as there can be no doubt that the modern inhabitants of Pales- 
tine know how to make the butter known to us, and regard it as a 
great luxury, the matter must not be treated too dogmatically. In 
churning, the milk is put into a receptacle made of skin, which is 
moved continually back and forth. 

We find cheese mentioned three times in the Bible, and in two of 
the instances by special terms. 6 In the other it is designated by the 
same word that is given to milk, but it is called "cuttings" or 

1 Luke 24 : 35 ; Acts 2 : 42. 2 j i in 13 : 26 ; 21 : 13. 3 1 Cor. 3:2; 1 Pet. 2:2; Heb. 

5:12. 4 Eeclus. 39 : 26 ; cf. Ex. 3:8;Deut. 6 : 3; 11 : 9-, Joel 3: 18. & Prov; 30 : 33. 6 2 Sam. 
17 : 29 ; Job 10 : 10. 



70 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



" slices of milk," that is, milk in a solidified form. 1 Probably what 
is intended is some variety of dried curd. When pulverized, such 
an article is now extensively used in the East as a condiment. 

7. Honey. — The important place held in our modern culinary 
arrangements by sugar was supplied in ancient Palestine by honey. 
Not only was there recourse to it for seasoning other food, but it was 
itself eaten as food. It was of three kinds. There was, first, the 
product of the bee, and often, it would seem, of the wild bee. 2 Then 
there was a manufactured article known in the modern Orient under 
the name of dibs. It consists of grape juice boiled down to the con- 
sistency of a syrup. This, it is likely, was the usual honey of com- 
merce. 3 And finally, there was a vegetable honey, so called, by 
which is meant a substance that exudes from certain trees, partic- 
ularly abounding in the neighborhood of Mount Sinai. It has been 
thought by some that the honey of which Jonathan, the son of Saul, 
ate, and which formed a part of the simple fare of John the Baptist, 
was the third kind. 4 It is more likely, however, to have been that 
of wild bees, always extremely abundant in Palestine. A mixture 
of butter and honey is spoken of in the book of Isaiah. 5 Such a 
dish is still considered a luxury in the East. Mixing honey with 
the cakes of the meal offering is prohibited in the Levitical legisla- 
tion. 6 Like leaven it would have the effect to produce fermentation. 
The ancients knew as well as ourselves the danger of eating too 
freely of honey. 7 

8. Locusts. — Four, of the seven or more, species of locusts were 

allowed by the 
Mosaic laws to 
be eaten. Al- 
though there is 
but one in- 
stance of their 
use as food not- 
ed in the Bible, 8 
there is no 
doubt that the 
Israelites, like 

other eastern peoples, considered them, when properly prepared, even 
a delicacy. They are to this day, to a limited extent, ottered for 
sale in the markets of western Asia ; but they arc mostly bought by 

M Sam. 17:18. • « 1 Sam. 14: 25; Matt. 3 : 4. « Cf. Gen. 43 : 11 ; Baek. 27 : 17. *18ara. 

1 1 . 25, 27 ; Matt. 3 : 4. & Isa. 7 : 15, 22. « Lev. 2:11. » Prov, 25 : 16, 27. 8 Mat t. 3 : 4. 




The Locust of Palestine. 



FOOD AND MEALS. 



71 



the poorer classes only. Sometimes they are roasted or thoroughly 
dried in the sun, and eaten mixed with salt, the head, feet, wings and 
entrails having been previously removed. At other times they are 
boiled and eaten with butter and salt, or having been dried they 
are reduced to a powder and cakes made from them. On the re- 
stored walls of the palace of Sennacherib is a representation of the 
various kinds of fruits, flowers, wild game and the like, which were 
served up to that monarch. Among others there are seen servants 
bearing long sticks covered thick with dried locusts. 

9. Fish. — The Sea of Galilee furnished in the olden time great 
quantities of 
fresh fish to the 
inhabitants of 
northern Pal- 
estine. There 
must have been 
no inconsider- 
able trade in 
them. 1 Jerusa- 
lem and the 
surrounding 
country, on the 
other hand, 
were probably 
supplied with 
dried and salt- 
ed fish by Phoe- 
nician traders. 2 

It may be inferred that there was a regular fish market in Jerusalem, 
since there was a gate known as the "fish gate" on its northeast side. 
The Israelites had learned in Egypt highly to prize fish as food, and 
their laws allowed the free use of any that had fins and scales. 3 The 
frequent mention of fish in the Gospels as an article of diet 4 is notice- 
able. When fresh, a favorite way of cooking seems to have been to 
roast them either over embers directly or by laying them upon hot 
stones. 5 Besides the casting and drag nets and other similar appli- 
ances, 6 the hook and line were also used for fishing, and to some ex- 
tent, it would seem, the trident and spear. 7 A peculiar method of 
keeping fish alive and within reach in the water after being caught 




The Eastern Cast Net. 



i Matt. 17 : 27 ; Luke 5:6. 2 ^eh. 13 : lfi. 
15 : 34 ; Luke 21 : -12. & John 21:9. 6 Hab. 



Lev. 11 : 9-12 ; Num. 11:5. < Matt. 14 : 17 ; 
15 ; Matt. 13 : 47. i j 0D 41 : 1, 7 ; Isa. 19 : 8. 



72 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

was by means of a ring through their gills and a cord of reeds. 1 
Peter and his fellow apostles appear to have expected the best 
success in the night in fishing with a net. 2 

10. Game. — Mosaic regulations show that wild game was a com- 
mon article of diet. 3 Hunting was, in fact, a necessity for the 
Israelites on entering Canaan, since otherwise it w T ould have seriously 
interfered with the peaceful occupation of the land. 4 References to 
Nimrod " the mighty hunter before the Lord," to Ishmael as an 
" archer" and to Esau as a " cunning hunter," as well as numerous 
illustrations drawn from the chase, are significant as touching the 
familiarity of the Hebrews, down to a comparatively late period, 
with all that concerned the taking of game. 5 The sparsely-settled 
portions of Palestine must formerly have abounded, as to no incon- 
siderable extent they do still, with wolves, panthers, bears, lions, 
hyenas, jackals, foxes, hares, wild hogs and several varieties of the 
antelope. The Bible says little directly of the methods employed 
by the hunter, but incidental references make it clear that they were 
much like those set forth on the monuments of Assyria and Egypt. 
For the larger species of wild beasts pitfalls were constructed. 6 For 
other game the bow and arrow were used, as well as the snare and 
the net. 7 There is incidental mention in one passage of decoy birds, 
but there is no evidence in the Bible that trained falcons were 
kept, or even that dogs were taught to hunt with their masters. 8 

11. Vegetables. — Vegetables in great variety are mentioned in 
the Bible as articles of food. They are represented not only as 
products of cultivation, but as growing wild in the fields. 9 We find 
references, for example, to beans, lentils, cucumbers, melons, leeks, 
onions and garlic. 10 The bitter herbs enjoined to be eaten with the 
passover have not been identified with certainty. 11 According to the 
Mishna, endive, chiccory, wild lettuce or the nettle might be so used. 
Besides the species of vegetables already mentioned, there now grow 
luxuriantly in western Asia, and some of them it is likely in the 
early times, the beet, turnip, radish, carrot, cabbage, egg-plant, 
tomato and squash. The poorer classes were often dependent on 
what they found growing wild, and are spoken of in the book of 
Job as plucking "salt-wort" and making use of the "roots of the 
broom." 12 Serious consequences, it will be remembered, would have 

i. Job 41: 2. 2 Luke 5: 5. * Deut. 12 : 15 ; cf. Lev. 17 : 13. * Ex. 23: 29. * Gen. 10:9; 
21 :20; 25:27; 1 Sam.26: 20; 2 Sara. 23: 20; Job 10: 16; 88:89; Ps. 25: 15; 85:7; 142:8; Pro*. 
12 : 27 ; Isa. 51 : 20. « Ps. 9 : 15 ; Ezek. 19 : 4-9. » Ps. 124 : 7 ; Prov. 7 : 23. * Jer. 5 : 27 ; 

cf.Eoolus. 11:30; Bar.3:17. 9 1 Kings 21:2; 2 Kings 4 : 38-41. i° Gen. 25:34; 2 Sam. 

17 : 28 ; Isa. 1:8. » Ex. 12 : 8 ; Num. 9:11; cf. Lam. 3 : 15. 12 Job 30 : 4. L 



FOOD AND MEALS. 73 

come to the sons of the prophets on a certain occasion, when one of 
their number "shred" wild gourds into the "pot of pottage," but 
for the interposition of Elisha. 1 Even now, as in our Lord's time, 
the dry pods of the carob tree (" husks ") are food for the poor in 
Palestine. Among condiments mint, anise, dill and cummin are 
mentioned in the Bible, as well as salt, coriander seed, rue and 
mustard. 2 The mustard plant still grows in the neglected portions 
of the Jordan valley, and often reaches the height of six or more 
feet. To speak of anything as being as small as a grain of mustard 
seed seems to have been proverbial in New Testament times. 3 

12. The Vine and its Products. — Mention is made as early as 
the book of Genesis of the cultivation of the vine in Palestine. 4 Its 
luxuriant growth in the olden time is well illustrated in the story 
of the spies and the one cluster of grapes which they brought from 
Eshcol to Joshua, carrying it "upon a staff between two." 3 The 
vines of Sibmah, Elealeh, Heshbon and Engedi are also especially 
noted in the Scriptures. 6 Formerly, as now, there was a great dif- 
ference between the cultivated and wild varieties of grapes. The 
prophet compares Israel to a vine which brought forth wild grapes 
notwithstanding the pains which had been taken with it. 7 On the 
other hand, our Lord finds the vine and its branches the most fitting 
symbol of his own mystical union with his people. 8 Grapes were eaten 
fresh, or in the form of raisins, or dried and pressed into cakes. 
There is a separate word in Hebrew for the berry, the cluster and 
the other forms mentioned, including the seed and the wild grape. 
The original Hebrew word for raisin-cake survives in the modern 
Italian simmuchi. The offering of cakes of raisins was one of the 
idolatrous rites practiced in the time of Hosea. 9 

13. Besides water and milk, sour and other wines have always 
been among the most common beverages of eastern peoples, except- 
ing Mohammedans. Boaz provided a vinegar of some kind for his 
workmen to moisten their bread in at their noonday meal; 10 and 
from Numbers 6 : 3 we learn that the Israelites were acquainted with 
a vinegar made from wine and one made from " strong drink," that 
is, probably, date wine, or an intoxicating drink manufactured after 
the manner of the Egyptians from barley. Its expensiveness would 
have prevented a very common use of wine among the Israelites, 
except by the rich. When used as a beverage, it was perhaps mixed 

l 2 Kings 4 : 38-41. 2 Ex. 16 : 31 ; Job 6:6; Tsa. 28 : 25-27 ; Matt. 13 : 13 ; 23 : 23. 3 Mark 
4.31,32. 4 Gen. 9:20,21. 5 Num. 13:23. « Cant. 1 : 14 ; Isa. 16 : 8-10 ; Jer. 48 : 32. 

f Isa. 5 : 2 ; cf. Ps. 80 : 8-13. 8 John 15 : 1-6. 9 Hos. 3:1. 10 Ruth 2 : 14 ; cf. Matt. 27 : 34. 



74 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



with water, though we have no traces of such a custom until a late 
period. 1 On the other hand there were some who preferred it when 
made more fiery and intoxicating by the addition of stimulating 
spices. 2 

There are a number of terms used in the Old and New Testaments 
for wine. But the effort made in some quarters to show that the 
wine spoken of in the Bible as a blessing was unintoxicating, or 
even a purely vegetable product and no beverage at all, has failed 
for a number of sufficient reasons : the etymology of the words em- 
ployed as agreed upon by the most competent lexicographers ; the 
manner in which this supposed unintoxicating product is spoken of 
elsewhere in the Bible; 3 and the well-nigh universal testimony of 
travellers, missionaries and other residents in the East. The use 
of wine as a drink offering establishes the fact of its use as a bever- 
age. It also paid its tithe like other products. 4 At the same time 

it is not to be overlooked that the Bible 
contains the most impressive warnings 
against the too free use of wine and 
strong drink; 5 forbade them in certain 
cases; 6 and introduced principles justi- 
fying and enforcing in some circum- 
stances the most rigorous abstinence on 




the part of the Christian discipl 



e.' 



14. The Fig. — Next to the grape, 
the fig holds the most prominent place 
among the fruits cultivated by the Is- 
raelites. Like the grape, it was eaten 
both fresh and in a dried state. Wheu 
The Eastern Fig. dried, it was sometimes pressed into the 

form of round cakes, and had then a 
special name given to it. This seems to have been the fig of com- 
merce. 8 The fig tree appears in the very beginnings of history, and 
its wide distribution is indicated by the fact that, with the vine, it is 
made the basis of one of the most frequent figures of the sac rod 
writers. 9 The fig was thought to have curative qualities; at least 
it was made in one important instance the medium of a cure by the 
prophet Isaiah. 10 There are two sorts of figs recognized in the Bible : 

i Cf. Isa. 1 : 22. 2 p s . 75 : 8 ; Prov. 9 : 2, 5 ; Cant, 7:2. 3 Prov. 3:10; Isa. 62 : 8 ; Hos. 4:11; 
Joel 1:5; Micah 6 : 15. * Ex. 29 : 40 ; Lev. 23 : 13 ; Num. 15 : 5 ; Deut. 18:4. 5 p rov . 20 : 1 j 
23 : 29-35 ; Isa. 5 : 22 ; 28 : 1-7 ; 56 : 12. « Lev. 10: 9 ; Num. 6: 3. * Rom. 14:21. 6 1 Sam. 
25 : 18 ; 30 : 12 ; 1 Chron. 12 : 40. 9 Gen. 3 : 7 ; 1 Kings 4 : 25 ; Micah 4:4; Zech. 3 : 10. 10 2 

Kings 20:7. 



FOOD AND MEALS. 75 

the early and the late. The latter sometimes remained on the tree 
the entire winter. The fig tree which was cursed by our Lord for 
being fruitless had leaves; 1 hence fruit might have been expected 
from it, since the latter is usually produced before the former. In 
this case, however, the leaves had anticipated the fruit and given 
promise of that which had not been fulfilled. — » 

15. The Apple and other Fruits. — The apple tree and its fruit 
are mentioned in a few passages of the Bible, and in terms showing 
the relatively high position assigned them among the products of 
the Holy Land. 2 Some writers think that the apple known to us is 
not meant, but rather the apricot or the quince, apples being now 
rare in Syria and of poor quality. Of palm trees the date palm 
seems to be the only one known to Bible lands. This was widely 
cultivated, and a common symbol of grace and strength with bibli- 
cal writers. 3 So prolific was this tree that an entire family was some- 
times sustained from the various products of a single one. The fruit 
ripens in September or October. It is eaten either fresh or, the stone 
being removed, is kneaded into a paste and consumed, as required, 
with bread and other food. The pomegranate was another of the 
natural productions of the land of Canaan. It was little more than 
a shrub in size, rarely reaching a height above ten feet ; but its fruit 
was highly prized. 4 Bepresentations of it were to be found on the 
high priest's ephod, and carved figures of the same surmounted the 
pillars of Solomon's temple. 5 It attains to the size of an orange, 
but has both ends flattened like the apple, and is of a beautiful 
reddish-brown color. The Israelites had learned to enjoy its taste 
while in Egypt. 6 Its juice, though somewhat acid, is much esteemed 
as a cooling drink ; and sometimes it is manufactured into wine. 

16. Oil. — Oil, it is probable, was formerly used no less commonly 
in the East as food than it now is. This might be inferred from the 
fact that it is one of the requirements of the meal offering. 7 It seems 
not to have been consumed by itself, but only as mixed with other 
food, largely taking the place of butter and lard among ourselves. 
It was generally, though not exclusively, expressed from the olive 
berry, w T hich itself, doubtless, was an article of food. The Talmud 
speaks of a number of other varieties of oil, including that of roses, 
for medicinal purposes and perfumery, and that of nuts and the 
castor bean for general use. In addition to the use of oil as food 

l Matt. 21 : 18-22 ; Mark 11 : 12-14, 20-23. z Cant. 2 :3; 8 : 5 ; Joel 1:12; cf. Cant, 2 : 5 ; 7 : 
8 ; Prov. 25 : 11. » Ps. 92 : 12. * D eu t. 8:8. & Ex. 28 : 33, 34 ; 1 Kings 7 : 18 (margin). 

6 Num. 20 : 5. 1 Lev. 2 : 4, 7, 15 ; Num. 7 : 19. 



76 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

and in the meal offerings, mention is made in the Bible of its em- 
ployment for lighting, as a cosmetic, for anointing to office, and, 
mixed with wine, as a remedy for wounds. 1 An important trade in 
oil with other countries sprang up as early as the ninth century B.C. 2 

17. Nuts. — There are a few species of nuts named in the Bible. 
For example, among the products of Canaan which the sons of Jacob 
carried down to Egypt, as a present to its viceroy, were pistachio 
nuts and almonds. 3 The pistachio tree, which resembles the sumach, 
now flourishes widely in Syria and Palestine, and is known to have 
done so long before the Christian era. Almonds are referred to in 
a number of passages, notably in Ecclesiastes, where, possibly, its 
white blossom is made the symbol of the hoary locks of age. 4 These 
blossoms cover the whole tree, the green leaves not appearing until 
afterwards. In Canticles the walnut seems to be referred to, but it 
is the variety commonly known as the " English walnut." 5 Accord- 
ing to Josephus walnut trees once grew luxuriantly around the Lake 
of Gennesaret. 6 

18. Eggs. — From some incidental allusions in the Scriptures it 
may be concluded that eggs too formed a part of the diet of the 
ancient Hebrews. Job, for instance, asks, " Can that which hath 
no savor be eaten without salt ? Or is there any taste in the white 
of an eggV n And our Lord, in illustration of the heavenly Fa- 
ther's willingness to hear the prayer of his children, inquires, "And 
of which of you that is a father shall his son ask a loaf, and he 
give him a stone ? ... Or if he shall ask an egg, will he give him 
a scorpion?" 8 

19. Animal Food in General. — It cannot be certainly in- 
ferred from Genesis 1 : 29, 30 ; 9:3 that man was at first expressly 
limited to a vegetable diet. The most that can be positively stated 
is that divine permission to eat flesh is not known to have been given 
until after the flood. 9 In the hot climates of the East not only would 
experience soon show the unwholesomeness of much animal food ; 
but, as there was no method of preserving it for any length of time, 
it would also be found too expensive a custom to become a very com- 
mon one. Very early, moreover, restrictions began to be placed upon 
the free consumption of such food, which greatly curtailed its use. 

First, there was laid upon Noah, along with the permission to use 
as food " every moving thing that liveth," the prohibition of blood 

1 Ex. 25 : G ; 27 : 20 ; Lev. 8:12; 1 Sam. 10:1; 2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Isa. 1 : G ; Luke 7 : 46 ; 10 : 34, 
2 1 Kings 5:11; 2 Chron. 2:10, 1>. 3 Gen. 43:11. « Eccles. 12 : 5. & Cant. 6:11. *War* 
of Jews, 3, 10:8. i Job 6:6. 8 Luke 11 : 11, 12; cf. Isa. 10: 14 ; 59:5. » Gen. 4 : 2, 20; 7:2. 



FOOD AND MEALS. 77 

with the flesh. 1 We may suppose either that this injunction was 
directed against some heathenish practice of the antediluvian world 
already known to Noah, and likely to be followed afterwards, or that 
it was intended to foreshadow the still stricter Mosaic regulations on 
the subject. 2 Possibly both reasons may be considered as having 
influence, but especially the latter. The Bible is a unit, though 
showing a clear development, in its teaching, Genesis looking for- 
ward to Exodus and Leviticus as much as these look backward to 
Genesis. The strictness with which the Jews observed this regula- 
tion in the later times may be inferred from the fact that it was one 
of the few laid upon Gentile converts to Christianity by their Jewish 
brethren. 3 According to the finical rabbis the blood of fish is not 
covered by it, and is therefore permitted. 

In natural connection with the first pre-Mosaic restriction followed 
another in the Mosaic laws prohibiting the use of the flesh of an 
animal dying a natural death, or of one found torn in the fields, or 
of an ox that had been stoned for unruliness. There are different 
phases of this law in the Pentateuch ; those of Exodus and Levit- 
icus reflecting the wilderness period, that of Deuteronomy a per- 
manent residence in Palestine. 4 Thirdly, on account of the remark- 
able incident recorded in Genesis, chapter thirty-two, the Hebrews, 
though without special commandment, were accustomed to abstain 
from eating " the sinew of the hip which is upon the hollow of the 
thigh, unto this day." No other reference is made to this fact in the 
Bible, but that the rule was considered binding, and continued in force 
long after the beginning of the Christian era, is attested by the Talmud. 

Again, certain prescribed fatty portions of the animal, such as 
were offered in sacrifice upon the altar, were forbidden to be eaten, 
namely, the fat lying about the stomach, the entrails and kidneys, 
that which is " by the loins, and the caul upon the liver," and the 
fat tail of the sheep. 5 The people of Nehemiah's time did not trans- 
gress this ordinance when they ate "the fat" on one occasion, the 
original word there showing that simply the more fatty portions of 
the flesh, and not the fat itself, are meant. Of course, too, as will 
be hereafter shown, animals or parts of animals designated for sacri- 
fice or other holy uses could only be eaten under specified conditions. 
Still further, it was not allowed to partake of a kid which had been 
cooked in its mother's milk. 6 Many fanciful reasons have been con- 

i Gen. 9:4. 2 Lev. 3 : 17 ; 7 : 26 ; Ps. 16 : 4 ; Ezek. 33 : 25 ; Zech. 9:7. 3 Acts 15 : 20, 29 ; 
21 : 25. * Ex. 21 : 32, 35 ; 22 : 31 ; Lev. 17 : 15 ; Deut. 14 : 21. 6 Lev. 3 : 3, 9, 17 ; 7 : 3, 23. 
e Ex. 23 : 19 ; 34 : 26 ; Deut. 14 : 21. 



78 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

jectured for such a prohibition. While it is possible that it is in 
some way connected with idolatrous practices, a sufficient ground 
for it might be the lack of feeling which would be displayed by such 
a course. The cultivation of kindly sentiments toward the animal 
creation was thought important enough to make it the subject of 
several precepts in the Mosaic codes. 1 Meat offered to idols was also 
practically forbidden in the Pentateuch, as also its use was held to 
be a misdemeanor by many among the early Christian discipleship. 2 
With the latter the rule was so limited in the later times that it was 
thought to be a breach of the law to eat of such flesh before it had 
been presented as an offering, though known to be designed for that 
purpose. In all periods there were some who showed an excess of 
rigor in their observance of the dietary laws of Moses. Not alone 
such ascetics as the Essenes, but a considerable party in the Chris- 
tian Church seems to have made a virtue of abstinence from meat, 
regarding it as a necessary means to the attainment of the highest 
spiritual life. 3 

Finally, there was a large class of animals which were looked 
upon as ceremonially unfit to be eaten. A list of them is given in 
Leviticus, chapter eleven, and an abstract of the same in Deuter- 
onomy, chapter fourteen. Among quadrupeds there were excepted 
from this number whatever parted the hoof, that is, had the hoof 
divided into two parts, and that chewed, or more literally raised, 
the cud. An animal having one and not the other of these peculiar- 
ities was excluded, as the camel, whose hoof is only partially cloven, 
the hare, the coney and the swine. The hare and coney mentioned 
in Deuteronomy 4 as chewing the cud do this, it would seem, only in 
appearance. If they did so in reality, the other circumstance of 
their not being cloven footed would exclude them from the number 
of ceremonially-clean animals. It should be made no objection to 
the language of an inspired writer that he speaks of phenomena as 
they are observed rather than in scientific language. In no other 
way could he have been understood by the people of his time. Of 
fishes, as already remarked, only those having scales and fins were 
regarded as ceremonially clean. 

Among unclean birds about twenty varieties are indicated by 
name. It would be too much to expect that all of these could now be 
identified. The list in Deuteronomy corresponds with that in Levit- 
icus with one exception, 5 which seems to rest on a corruption in the 

1 Lev. 22 : 28 ; Deut. 22 : 6, 7 ; 25 : 4. 2 Ex. 34 : 15 ; Num. 25 : 2 ; 1 Cor. 8 : 10. 3 Dan. 1:8; 
2 Mace. 5 : 27 ; Rom. 14 : 2 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 25. 4 Deut. 14 : 7. & The glede. 



FOOD AND MEALS. 79 

text. Again, all winged creeping things having four feet were pro- 
hibited, unless like the locust they had an additional pair of hind 
legs to spring with. Among creeping things without wings classed 
as unclean were the weasel, the mouse, four varieties of the lizard and 
the chameleon. They were not only not allowed as food, but contact 
with them caused un cleanness which required purification. 

These series of laws in general, as has been remarked upon the 
whole system of ritual laws, were expressly for the Hebrews, and 
meant to be largely educational in their effects. Our Lord took a 
broader view. 1 Still their underlying principle is one for all time 
and for all peoples who will be his : " I am the Lord your God who 
have separated you from the peoples. . . . And ye shall be holy 
unto me: for I the Lord am holy." 2 While the regulations of 
Moses seem to have been related partly to traditional customs and 
partly to natural taste or instinct, they are not the result of them. 
They had an important sanitary bearing, and a specially important 
bearing on the development of the idea of the kingdom of God 
among men. It is only a somewhat stronger emphasis that is laid 
upon the latter aim in the New Testament. 3 It is noticeable that in 
general, among both quadrupeds and birds, the law resulted in ex- 
cluding as food such as themselves fed on flesh. The exceptions to 
this rule, like the hare, the ass, the camel, the swine, the serpent and 
other creeping things, might be readily explained on other sufficient 
grounds. Part of them were serviceable animals and their prohibition 
rested on an economic basis. To the others there might well have 
been an instinctive aversion. The history of the serpent in Eden 
could never be forgotten, nor the place of the swine in the orgies of 
many heathen nations. 4 

20. Cooking Animal Food. — It is not to be supposed that the 
Hebrews as a people ever used meat as an ordinary diet. It was 
found chiefly at court and on the tables of the wealthy, or it was 
reserved for rare festival occasions and exhibitions of that generous 
hospitality for which Orientals have always been famous. 5 In such 
instances, too, animals of the bovine species and those which had been 
stall fed were oftenest used. 6 The kinds of animal food most frequently 
referred to in the Bible are beef, mutton and goat flesh, the young 
and old of each, and various species of wild game, especially the 
antelope. The animal was ordinarily killed by the master of the 

i Matt, 15:11. 2 Lev. 20 : 24, 26. 3 2 Cor. 6 : 17 ; Heb. 7 : 26. 4 Tsa. 66 : 17. 5 Gen. 
18 : 7 ; 27 : 4 ; Ex. 12 : 8 ; 1 Kings 4 : 22, 23 ; Neh. 5:18; Luke 15 : 23. 6 i gam. 16 : 20 ; Prov. 

15 : 17 ; Jer. 46 : 21 ; Amos 6:4; Mai. 4 : 2. 



80 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

house and prepared for the table by the women or servants. 1 The 
flesh was either roasted or boiled. That boiling was the usual 
method in early times may be inferred from the fact that the word 
meaning "to boil" had even in the earliest books taken on the 
secondary signification of " to cook." When it meant " to boil," 
the w T ords "in water" or "in milk" 2 were often added. When 
roasted the process seems to have corresponded to what is known 
among us as the barbecue, that is, the animal was roasted whole 
either over a slow fire of wood or in a kind of oven made by hollow- 
ing out and heating the ground for the purpose. 

In preparing it for boiling, after it had been properly killed and 
dressed, the right shoulder was first removed. In the case of a sacri- 
fice, this part, as a kind of first fruits, was reserved for the priest. The 
other joints were then successively taken out, the flesh stripped off 
and chopped into convenient pieces for eating, the bones crushed and 
the whole thrown together into a boiling caldron of water or water 
mixed with milk. 3 The Hebrew language has a number of express- 
ions for pot or caldron, as well as a word for the earthen cooking 
range, the flesh-hook and for various sorts of dishes. 4 But it is not 
always possible simply from the etymology of the word to determine 
the form or dimensions of the article. Vegetables were commonly 
boiled and served up as pottage in the way found so inviting by 
Esau. 5 Professional cooks were only employed in extraordinary 
instances. 6 A single root-word was used for both cook and butcher. 
Rebecca seems to have understood not only how to make the flesh 
of kids palatable, but even to taste like venison. Men, however, 
did not scorn, on occasions, to attend to the cooking of food, or at 
least to superintend its preparation. 7 

21. Customs at the Table. — Knives, forks and spoons, as is 
well known, were used only in the preparation of meals, not at the 
table. Meat was ordinarily served in a single large dish, and was 
eaten with the fingers. This custom still prevails in the East. It 
does not, however, prevent the host, if he chooses, from offering choice 
bits to his guests. Thin slices of bread which could be conveniently 
rolled up were also made use of in conveying the food to the mouth. 
The broth was served in a separate dish from the meat, and was 
used for moistening the bread. 8 Our Lord's words will be recalled 
where he says of Judas, " He that dippeth his hand with me in the 

l Gen. 27 : 9 ; Judg. 6 : 19. 2 k x . 12 : 9 ; Dent. 17:7; 2 Chron. 85 : 18. 3 Ezek. 24 : 4, 5, 

10 ; Micah 3:3. * Lev. 6 : 21 ; 11: 35 ; Num. 11:8; 2 Kings 2 : 20 ; 21 : 18 ; Prov. 19 : 24; lsa. 
65 : 4 ; Zech. 14:21. 6 Gen. 25 : 29 ; 2 Kings 4 : 38. ■ 1 Sam. S : 13 ; 9 : 22-2 1. • Gen. 27 : 
S ; .! ml-. 0:19; Luke 17 : 8. 8 J u dg. G : 19. 



FOOD AND MEALS. 



81 



dish, the same shall betray me." 1 This mode of eating is neither so 
inconvenient nor so untidy as at first it might appear. 

Great attention was naturally paid to washing the hands before 
eating. They w T ere not plunged into the water, as the custom is with 
us, but the water was poured 
upon them by another per- 
son. Elisha, after the trans- 
lation of his predecessor, was 
favorably known as one who 
had "poured water on the 
hands of Elijah." 2 This prac- 
tice of washing the hands be- 
fore a meal, and the precise 
way of doing it, in the time 
of our Lord had come to be 
a matter of positive injunc- 
tion on the part of the Jewish 
hierarchy. He refused to 
sanction it as a binding rule. 
When the Pharisees there- 
fore complained to him that 
his disciples did not wash 
their hands in this ceremonial way before eating, he rebuked them 
for their hypocrisy and for making void the law of God by their 
traditions. It was not so much the custom that he objected to as 
the pretended authority of the rabbis in the matter. 3 

22. We note but a single instance 
in the Old Testament where a 
prayer is offered in connection with 
a meal. 4 But it seems to have 
been customary with the Master 
and his disciples, and that would 
be a sufficient warrant, were there 
no other, for what is known among 
ourselves as "asking the blessing" 




Orientals at a Meal. 




or " saying grace. 



The later 



Washing the Hands. 



the basis of Deuteronomy 8 

i Matt. 26 : 23. 2 2 Kings 3 : 11. 

6 Matt. 15 : 36 ; Luke 9 : 16 ; John 6 : 11 
6 



Jews laid down special regulations 

respecting prayer at meals, and on 

10 enjoined also that thanks should be 



3 Matt. 15 : 1-12 ; Mark 7 : 1-13. 
Acts 27: 35; 1 Tim. 4: 3. 



4 1 Sara. 9 : 13. 



82 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

returned after the repast. How early the custom originated it is not 
possible to say. 

23. The Hebrew language has no special terms designating meals, 
as the Greek and Latin have, and it is difficult to fix with certainty 
either their time or their number. Whatever information we have 
on the subject comes from purely incidental references. Still there 
can be little doubt that the principal meal was in the evening. 1 
The foremost religious festival, the passover, at which meat was 
freely eaten, took place after sunset, and it is likely that this par- 
ticular time was selected as best harmonizing with national customs 
as well as with the historical occasion of the festival. Besides the 
evening meal, the only other full meal customary would seem to 
have been taken in the morning. To Israel in the wilderness Moses 
said, " At even ye shall eat flesh, and in the morning ye shall be 
filled with bread." 2 And of the ravens that fed Elijah it is nar- 
rated that they brought him " bread and flesh in the morning, and 
bread and flesh in the evening." 3 Such a custom would not pre- 
clude an additional meal in exceptional cases, like that of laborers 
for example, who rose very early in the morning to begin their work. 4 

The writer of Ecclesiastes, in denouncing a woe upon the laud 
where the king was a child and princes ate "in the morning," 
doubtless had sole reference to luxurious feasting and not at all to 
the customs of ordinary life. 5 From some passages in the New 
Testament it might be inferred that the usual time for the morning 
meal was about nine o'clock, that is, after the first hour of prayer. 6 
Josephus states that in his day the morning meal on the Sabbath 
did not take place until twelve o'clock, when, as it w T ould appear, 
the services of the synagogue were over. 7 Possibly at this period 
the Hebrews, like the Greeks and Romans, came to employ to some 
extent the noon and evening hours for their chief meals. But the 
example of Joseph in Egypt and other extraordinary cases cannot 
be fairly cited as establishing such a practice in the earliest times. 8 

24. It has already been remarked that the practice of reclining 
at table first appears in the Bible in the prophecy of Amos. 9 It 
afterwards became the common one. Such a custom serves to make 
clear several otherwise obscure passages in the New Testament. For 
example, it can be understood how the woman spoken of in Luke 
was able to wash and anoint the feet of Jesus while he was " sitting 

i Gen. 19 : 1-3 ; Ex. 18 : 12, 13 ; Judg. 19 : 4-6 ; Ruth 3 : 7 ; 1 Thess. 5:7. 2 Ex. 16 : 12. 

3 1 Kings 17 : 6. 4 Ruth 2 : 14 ; Prov. 31 : 15. 5 Eccles. 10 : 16. ° John 21 : 4, 12 ; Aits 2 : 15. 
1 Life, I 54. 8 Gen. 43 : 16, 25 ; 1 Kings 20 : 16 ; Luke 14 : 12. Amos 6:4; cf. Ezek. 23 : 41. 



FOOD AND MEALS. 



83 



at meat in the Pharisee's house," arid how our Lord himself per- 
formed this service for his disciples when they were similarly situ- 
ated. 1 They were recliniDg on their left sides, if they were following 
the prevalent custom, with their heads toward the table and their 
feet stretched out behind them. It will be remembered, too, that it 
is said of the beloved disciple at the last supper that he, " leaning 
back, as he was, on Jesus' breast," spoke to him of his betrayer.* 
We are not to suppose, however, that this was the ordinary way in 
which our Lord aud his disciples took their food. 

AVhen couches w T ere used for the purpose of reclining at meals, 
the table would naturally be somewhat higher than when persons 
sat down to it. Such 
couches, although not 
mentioned in the New 
Testament except in 
some manuscript au- 
thorities at Mark 7 : 4, 
were undoubtedly com- 
mon. They were known 
as the triclinium, that 
is, couches originally 
adapted for three per- 
sons, although fre- 
quently occupied by 
more than that num- 
ber. They were provided with cushions on which the left elbow 
rested, and were arranged around a table in the form of a square or 
a parallelogram. The fourth side was left open for the convenience of 
those waiting on the guests. The first place on a couch was regarded 
as the place of honor, and the first couch on the right was the one most 
highly esteemed. In one of our Lord's parables he calls attention 
to what was undoubtedly a very common fault of his time, the eager- 
ness shown by guests to occupy the best places at table. The common 
English version speaks of "rooms," as though separate apartments 
rather than places to recline were referred to. 3 The practice of in- 
viting guests entitled to special honor to take a higher place than they 
are likely to select is still prevalent in the East. Their peculiar diet- 
ary laws, among other things, made the Hebrews exceedingly scrupu- 
lous in the matter of eating with others than those of their own nation. 4 




Ttonian Triclinium. Mode of Eating among the Jews in 
the Time of our Lord. 



i Luke 7 : 36-38 ; John 13 : 5. 
John 4:9:1 Cor. 5 : 11. 



2 John 13 : 25. 3 Luke 14 : 7-11. * Gen. 43 : 32 ; Matt, 9:11 



84 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

25. Festive Meals. — Before closing the present chapter atten- 
tion should be called to festive meals, or such as were provided espe- 
cially for invited guests. They were of old, and are still, an im- 
portant feature of social life in the Orient. As already observed, 
the occasions for such festivals among the ancient Hebrews were 
very numerous. They were rated as important according to the 
number and dignity of the guests, 1 the richness of the plate and 
viands, 2 and the round of days consumed by the festivities. 3 To 
decline an invitation to a feast for a trifling reason was considered a 
great indignity. 4 The host welcomed his guests with the utmost 
cordiality. Water was furnished for their feet ; they were anointed 
with perfumed oils ; and in the houses of the rich, robes and orna- 
mental wreaths were sometimes provided. 5 

The Hebrew language, as well as the Greek of the New Testament, 
has a special word for feasts where the drinking of wine and other 
liquors was made a prominent feature. In general usage, however, 
these terms were applied to ordinary feasts. Parties merely for drink- 
ing and revelling are treated with marked disapprobation by both 
the prophets and apostles. 6 It was customary in Egypt to remind 
the guests at a feast of their mortality by exhibiting a mummy ; but, as 
the monuments show, this did not prevent the greatest excesses. Such 
excesses, moreover, can hardly have been greater than those of the 
luxurious Israelites of Samaria in the corrupt days of Jeroboam II. 
The prophet Amos speaks of the women of that time as " kine of 
Bashan," who while oppressing the poor and crushing the needy 
cried to their lords, " Bring, and let us drink." 7 Representations on 
the monuments of both Assyria and Egypt show that it was custom- 
ary in those countries for men and women to feast together. This 
was doubtless the rule also in ancient Israel. Women had a place 
in the sacred meals, notably the passover, and cannot have been ex- 
cluded from other social festivities. 8 

For every important feast it was considered necessary to have a 
master of ceremonies. He answered to the well-known symposiarch 
among the Greeks and Romans. Our Lord alludes to this official 
when on the occasion of making the water wine he said to the serv- 
ants, " Draw out now, and bear unto the ruler of the feast." 9 All 
the attendants were, for the time, under his control. By his order 

l 1 Sam. 9 : 22 ; 1 Kings 1 : 25 ; Mark 12 : 39 ; Luke 14 : 8, 16. 2 Gen. 18 : 6 ; 43 : 34 ; 1 Sam. 
9 : 24 ; Esther 1:7. 3 Dan. 5:1; Tobit 8 : 19, 20. •* Matt. 22 : 3-7. 6 Qeu. IS -. 4 ; Ps. 23 : 5 ; 
Prov. 21 : 17 ; Eccles. 9 : 7, 8 ; Amos 6:6; Wisdom 2 : 7, 8 ; Matt. 22 : 1 1 ; John 12 : 3. « Isa. 
28 : 7 ; Gal. 5 : 21 ; Eph. 5 : 18. 7 Amos 4:1. 8 Ex. 12 : 3 ; Num. 25 : 1, 2 ; Deut. 16 : 11, 14 ; 
John 2:3; 12:3. » John 2: 8. 



FOOD AND MEALS. 



85 



the tables were cleared of the different courses. He first tasted of 
the wine, before it was distributed to the guests. The author of 
Ecclesiasticus tells the master of ceremonies that he is so to demean 
himself as to win the approval of the assembled company. 1 The 
cup-bearer was a person of quite another character. His office 
seems to have been largely po- 
litical. It will be recalled that 
it was this officer who was the 
means of freeing Joseph from 
prison. 2 Rab-shakeh was the 
cup-bearer of the famous Sen- 
nacherib, and was sent by him 
on a mission to Hezekiah king 
of Judah. 3 Nehemiah also was 
cup-bearer to the king of Persia. 4 
Persons who were not proper- 
ly guests were often admitted to 
feasts as spectators. At the pres- 
ent day it is no uncommon thing 
in the East for visitors to come 
in when strangers are enter- 
tained, seatiug themselves near for the purpose of observation or to 
engage in conversation. This custom makes it clear how it was pos- 
sible for the "woman who was a sinner" to gain admission to the 
Pharisee's house where Jesus had been invited. 5 Guests at banquets 
were frequently regaled with music and dancing. Such was the case 
when the prodigal returned. 6 Dancing, it is likely, was rarely en- 
gaged in by the guests. It was rather an exhibition on the part of 
others brought in for the purpose. 7 There is no evidence, moreover, 
that it w T as ever participated in by the two sexes together, as is cus- 
tomary with us. The fact that it was generally done by hired per- 
formers, and was largely a spectacular affair, may have added to the 
scorn of Michal when she saw David " leaping and dancing" before 
the ark. 8 Dancing was a favorite pastime among the women of 
Egypt. It is not strange that we find references to it as a religious 
ceremony on more than one occasion during and after the exodus. 9 




Assyrian King and Cup-bearer. 
(F>-om. the Assyrian tablets.) 



i Ecclus. ^2 : 1, 2. 2 Gen. 41:9. 
6 Luke 15 : 25. '> Matt. 11 : 17 ; 14 : 



2 Kin<?s 18 : 17. 
8 2 Sam. 6 : 16. 



4 Neh. 1 : 2 ; 2 : 1. 5 Luke 7 : < 
9 Ex. 15 : 20 ; Ps. 149 : 3 ; 150 : 4. 



CHAPTER IV. 

DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 

1. With the exception of the dress of the priests, which is minutely- 
described, the Bible says but little directly concerning the clothing 
of the ancient Hebrews. Still, it should not be difficult for us to 
get a tolerably accurate representation of the matter by putting to- 
gether incidental references and combining with them what we may 
learn from other sources. In this, as in other things, the customs of 
the Oriental peoples cannot have changed materially; while from 
Egypt, Assyria and other contemporaneous nations an ever-enlarg- 
ing store of information is disclosed to us from year to year. 

2. Materials for Clothing. — Setting aside as exceptional the 
" aprons" of fig leaves which our first parents made for themselves, 
the primitive material used for clothing seems to have been the 
rough skins of animals. 1 These were not altogether cast aside at 
any time afterwards, as we learn from the description given us of 
Elijah's dress and that of John the Baptist. In fact, they continue 
to be worn in the East by those exposed to much hardship, down to 
the present day. 2 But at an early period they must have been some- 
what generally abandoned for garments made from wool. We have 
noticed not only that the patriarchs kept sheep, but that they were 
accustomed to remove their fleeces ; and that wool was one of the 
principal materials from which clothing was made, the Bible offers 
abundant evidence. 3 About the time of the Babylonian exile Da- 
mascus wool was highly esteemed throughout the East. 4 

From Exodus 9 : 31 we learn that flax as well as barley was cul- 
tivated in Egypt. During the captivity of the Hebrews in that land 
a certain family of the tribe of Judah had for its special employ- 
ment the raising of flax and its manufacture into " fine linen." 5 This 
indicates considerable progress already in the production of cloth, 
since fine linen is everywhere represented in the Bible as a luxury. 
Even the ordinary garments of the Israelitish priesthood were made 
from a coarser quality of this material. 6 

i ( icn. .'S : 7, 21. 22 Kings 1:8; Matt, 3:4; Hob. 11 : 37. 3 Con 81 : 19 j 38 : 12 ; Lev. 

13 : 47 ; Deut. 22 : 11 ; Job &1 : 20 : Prov. 31 : 13 ; Ezek. 34 : 3. * Ezok. 27 : 18. 5 1 Chroa 

4 : 21. 6 Ex. 28 : 42 ; cf. 1 Sain. 2 : 18 ; 22 : 18 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 14. 
86 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 87 

How early cotton was introduced as an article of clothing, it is 
not possible with certainty to say. Hebrew words employed seem 
to include both cotton and linen, the simple idea of whiteness being 
the one emphasized in their roots. The language has no distinctive 
word for cotton. It is also a singular fact that Greek and Latin 
authors sometimes include cotton under the more general term 
" linen ;" and there was much confusion among all ancient writers 
respecting the two products. Nor is it to be greatly w r ondered at, 
since, until recently, it has not been decided whether the material in 
which the Egyptian mummies are enswathed is cotton or fine linen. 
It is now pretty generally agreed that both were employed. In India 
cotton fabrics were worn as early as B.C. 800. The plant is now 
cultivated in Palestine and Syria, and, on account of its superior 
qualities as a non-conductor of heat, is much used for turbans and 
underclothing. 

The word " silk," found three times in the common English ver- 
sion of the Old Testament, has been allowed by the revisers to stand 
only in Ezekiel 16 : 10, 13. 1 It is doubtful even here whether the 
product of the silk-worm or a finer quality of linen is meant. Rab- 
binical interpreters decide for the former. In the book of Judges 
mention is made of tow, that is, the coarser, broken parts of flax. 2 
Sackcloth was a rough material woven from goat's hair. Both the 
stuff and garment had the same name. It was used not only for 
sacks and bags, but was very generally worn by mourners, and, 
sometimes, even next the skin. 3 

3. The Mosaic law forbade to Israelites the w r earing of a mingled 
stuff, wool and linen together. 4 The reason for this prohibition was 
not, as Josephus alleges, 5 because such garments were worn by the 
priests. This w T as not the case. It was simply because such a prac- 
tice would be out of harmony with those distinctions of nature which 
God had instituted. It was looked upon as a sort of sacrilege, or 
uncleanness ; and abstinence was enjoined upon the Israelites as a 
means of discipline. On the same general plane with it was another 
law forbidding men and women to wear the garments or appendages 
peculiar to the opposite sex. 6 The latter law, however, had also 
another urgent motive in the fact that such an interchange of gar- 
ments might easily lead to immorality. 7 

4. Colors. — The color preferred for ordinary garments by the 

i See Prov. 31 : 22 ; but cf. Amos 3 : 12. 2 j u dg. 16 : 9. 3 Gen. 42 : 25 ; Lev. 11 : 32 ; Josh. 
9 : 4 ; 1 Kings 21 : 27 ; Job 16 : 15 ; Jonah 3:6. * Lev. 19 : 19 ; Deut. 22 : 11. 5 Anliq., 4, 8 : 
11. * Deut. 22 5. i Job 24: 15. 



r 



05 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

Hebrews was white. The art of bleaching cloth was early known. 1 
White, moreover, was a symbol of joy and purity. 2 It is not likely 
that the Hebrews knew much of the process of coloring previous to 
their sojourn in Egypt. Joseph's so-called "coat of many colors" 
was probably nothing more than a garment with sleeves (reaching 
to the extremities). 3 Subsequent to the exodus we find the Israel- 
ites using colors somewhat extensively for ornamentation, as well as 
threads of gold, and various kinds of figures. In the book of Judges 
we read of "dyed garments," and in one place of "divers colors of 
embroidery on both sides," that is, apparently, a fabric with the. 
same colors and figures on both the face and the back. 4 

The artificial colors named in the Bible are purple, blue, scarlet 
and vermilion. The first three were used in the vestments of the 
Levitical priests and the curtains of the tabernacle. Purple robes 
were worn by kings and other high officers. 6 Scarlet also was a 
color affected by the rich and luxurious. 6 Babylonian idols were 
sometimes enrobed in garments of purple and blue. 7 The Phoeni- 
cians, for the most part, seem to have provided the materials for col- 
oring ; but the Egyptians displayed the most skill in compounding 
and applying them. Besides the artificial colors just mentioned, the 
Bible recognizes as natural colors, in addition to white, black, red, 
yellow and green ; though sometimes without a sharp discrimination 
in the case of the last two. 8 It is not to be supposed that the com- 
mon people in Israel ordinarily indulged themselves in garments of 
many colors. 9 It was rather a sign of wealth and distinction. Imi- 
tating the luxurious habits of foreign nations is a frequent subject 
of censure on the part of the prophets. 10 

5. Forms of Dress for Males. — In form and general use the 
Oriental dress has been much the same in all ages. It consists of 
loose, flowing robes, which can be easily shifted and adapted to va- 
rious purposes. This description especially applies to the outer gar- 
ment worn by males among the Hebrews. In its simplest form it 
was merely a quadrangular piece of cloth, corresponding in texture 
to the means of the wearer. But the different Hebrew terms em- 
ployed for it, attest its multiform shape, quality and use. Its most 
common name, for example, simlah, in the first instance meant 
merely a covering; and while ordinarily used for the wide outer 

i 2 Kings 18 : 17 ; Isa. 7:3; Mai. 3:2; Mark 9:3. 2 2 Mace. 11:8; John 20 : 12 ; Acts 1:10; 
Rev. 3:4. 3 Gen. 37 : 3, 23 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 18 ; but cf. Gen. 38 : 28. * Ex. 28 : 6 ; :!li : S, 35 ; Judg. 
5 : 30. G Judg. 8 : 26 ; Esth. 8 : 15 ; Dan. 5:7; Mark 15 : 17. 8 2 Sam. 1 : 24 ; Prov. 31 : 21 ; 

Jer. 4:30. 7 jer. 10:9. 8 Lev. 13 : 30; Ps. 68 : 13; Isa. 37 : 27. » 2 Sam. 1:24; Luke 16: 
19. 10 Isa. 3 : 16 ; Jer. 4 : 30 ; Zeph. 1 : 8. 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 



89 



wrapper, it was used also for garments in general, and, in one case, 
for a soldier's cloak. 1 Another term, beged, etymologically meaning 
a covering also, and, as a rule, referring to clothing in general, some- 
times meant a superior kind of outer garment. 2 A third term, kesuth, 
likewise had the ordinary sense of a covering. 3 A fourth name, le- 
bush, is mostly poetical, though sometimes designating the robe of an 
eminent person. 4 Still another name, mad, distinguished the gar- 
ment as long. 5 The word gelom was used to designate an imported 
wrap similar to the outer garment 
ordinarily worn. 6 Other designa- 
tions were — suth (poetic, Gen. 49 : 
11); addereth (a full, noble mantle, 
2 Kings 2:13 and often) ; and Icar- 
bela (an Aramaic term, Dan. 3 : 21). 

This outer garment now, varying 
in size and texture, might also be 
worn in a variety of ways. Some- 
times, like the Scotch plaid, it was 
thrown over the left shoulder and 
fastened about the body. Sometimes 
it was thrown over both shoulders 
with the ends hanging in front. 
Sometimes it was drawn over the 
head, either like the modern poncho, 
or so as wholly to envelop the face. 7 
Poor people and travellers used it at 
night both as mattress and covering. 
It was on this account that the laws 
of the Pentateuch forbade the taking 
it in pawn to hold after sunset. 8 

6. It was on the four corners of this outer robe that the Hebrews 
wore a fringe, or, more likely, a tassel, in which was a cord of blue, 
intended to remind them of the precepts of the law and their obli- 
gation to obey them. How great an importance was attached to 
this outward symbol in the Saviour's time is well known. On the 
other hand, it was not the wearing it that the Saviour rebuked, as 
he seems to have worn one himself; but wearing it chiefly for 
purposes of ostentation. 9 The "purple robe" with which Jesus was 

i Gen. 9 : 23 ; Isa. 9:5. 2 Gen. 27 : 15 ; 1 Kings 22 : 10 ; Isa. 63 : 1. 3 Ex. 22 : 27 ; Dent. 

22 : 12. 4 2 Sara. 20 : 8 ; 2 Kings 10 : 22. 5 2 Sam. 10 : 4. « Ezek. 27 -24. ? 2 Sam. 15 : 
30 ; 1 Kings 19 : 13 ; Esth. 6:12. 8 Ex. 22 : 26, 27 ; Deut. 24 : 13, 17. 9 Num. 15 : 37-41 ; 

Deut. 22 : 12 ; Matt. 9 : 20 ; 14 : 36 ; Luke 8 : 44. 




Fringed Garment with Tassels. (After 
Farrar.) 



90 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

invested at the crucifixion was a Roman garment, and probably be- 
longed to some officer of the Roman army. 1 The "cloke" left by 
Paul at Troas was a kind of traveller's mantle, and not a portman- 
teau as conjectured by some. 2 

7. The undergarment, which was the same for both sexes, was com- 
monly called kethoneth (Greek, chiton). It was a sleeveless tunic or 
frock, of any material desired, and reached to the knees or ankles. 
The woman's garment was generally longer and of richer material 
than that of the man. The rendering coat, usually given to it in 
the English version, it will be seen is somewhat misleading. The 
tunic was fastened at the waist by a girdle. The fold made by the 
girdle was found convenient as a pocket, and was sometimes called 
a purse. 3 A person was not considered as completely dressed who 
wore only his undergarment, and is even spoken of in the Scriptures 
as naked. 4 

Another garment, called sadin, although sometimes confounded 
with the tunic, appears to have been quite a different article. It 
was a kind of long shawl of fine linen or wool, and used to wrap 
about the body during the day and as a covering at night. It is 
looked upon in the Scriptures as a luxury rather than a necessity. 5 

The me'il, on the other hand, was properly a second tunic, a sort 
of extra undergarment, although in our English version bearing 
such names as " robe," " coat " and " mantle." It differed from the 
common tunic in being longer and often of richer and more showy 
material. It was such a robe that Samuel's mother made for him 
while he served Eli at the tabernacle ; and that Jonathan stripped 
off to give to David as a token of affection. It was also to this gar- 
ment that our Lord referred when he said to his disciples that on 
their missionary journeys they were not to take " two coats " apiece. 6 
Hebrews in Palestine, excepting priests on duty, were not accustomed 
to wear trousers ; but we find them spoken of in the book of Daniel 
(" hosen ") as forming a part of the dress of certain Hebrews in the 
land of Persia. 7 This interesting statement is corroborated by He- 
rodotus, who alleges that trousers were worn by the Persians. 8 

8. Women's Dress. — There was a general resemblance between 
the clothing of men and women in the East, the distinctions being 
far less marked than in western lands. It may be the simplest way 
of discriminating between their respective outer garments to note the 

i Mark 1,5 : 17. 2 2 Tim. 4:13. 3 Matt. 10:9. * 1 Sam. 19:24; 2 Sam. 6:20; Job 24:10 ; 

Isa. 20 : 2 ; John 21 : 7. 6 Judg. 14 : 12, 13 ; Prov. 31 : 24 ; Isa. 3 : 23. M Sam. 2 : 19 ; IS : 4 ; 
Matt. 10 : 10 ; Luke 9:3. 1 Dau. 3 : 21. 8 Herodotus i. 71. 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 



91 



Hebrew terms which were applied to that of the women. While 
having a number of names, it served, in general, the same purpose as 
that of the other sex. Sometimes it was called mitpachath, " mantle/' 
and again, maatapha, "shawl." 1 The two words being found in im- 
mediate connection in one passage, it might be inferred that a differ- 
ent article of dress is referred to ; but the etymology shows that it 
could not have been very different. In both 
cases a kind of long shawl seems to be 
meant, which could be wrapped around the 
shoulders or body. The tsaiph, rendered 
" veil " in the account of Rebekah and of 
Tamar, while doubtless used sometimes as 
a veil, was more properly also an outer gar- 
ment of some light material. 2 The same is 
true of the article of dress called radld, 
"mantle," "veil," mentioned in the Can- 
ticles and in Isaiah. 3 In the context of the 
second passage we meet with the word peth- 
igil, " stomacher," which also appears to 
have been a w T rap of some sort, and, as the 
connection shows, was worn on festival oc- 
casions. Others, however, regard it as a 
girdle of fine linen. 

As the garments of women were gener- 
ally made more full and flowing than those of men, so, for the pur- 
pose of covering the feet, the outer one was provided with a fringe. 
In Isaiah the " virgin daughter of Babylon " is bidden to strip off 
her " train " in order to engage in menial tasks. 4 In another part of 
the same prophet a vision is described in which it is said of Jehovah 
that he sat on a throne, high and lifted up, and his " train filled the 
temple." 5 Here not simply the fringe is meant, but the entire lower 
part of the robe, as in other passages. 6 

9. It would appear that in the earliest times in the East women did 
not ordinarily wear veils. It was only on certain occasions when a 
proper modesty required it that they covered their faces. 7 This fact 
is sufficiently established by the monuments of Assyria and Egypt. 
The modern practice has been largely brought about through the 
influence of the Koran. Moreover, when Paul censures the Corinth- 




inner and Outer Garment Worn 
in the East. 



l Ruth 3 : 15 ; Isa. 3 : 22. 2 Gen. 24 : 65 ; 38 : 14, 19. 3 Cant. 5:7; Isa. 3 : 23, 24. * Isa. 
47:2. 5l sa .6:l. 6 Ex. 28:33, 34; Jer. 13 :22; Lam. 1 : 9; Nah. 3:5. ?Gen.24:65; 

29 : 25. 



92 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



ian women for the disuse of veils, it should not be at once inferred 
that the veils referred to were used for covering the face. Often, 
when veiling was required, it sufficed to draw the outer garment 
over the head. The proper veil was doubtless sometimes worn by- 
women in biblical times and lands, but mostly for ornament. The 
word rendered " muffler" in Isaiah 3 : 9 was probably a sort of veil — 
at least, its etymology favors the supposi- 
tion — and the Talmud uses the same term 
for the veil commonly worn by Arab women. 
In another passage of Isaiah, and three in 
Canticles, a Hebrew word has been properly 
translated by the revisers "veil" instead of 
" locks " of hair (Common Version), and 
the thought has gained much in clearness 
by the change. 1 Moses is said to have put a 
veil, masveh, over his face after communing 
with Jehovah on Mount Sinai. 2 It is likely 
that it was his outer garment which he tem- 
porarily used for the purpose. It seems 
questionable whether the word translated 
" kerchiefs " in Ezekiel does not rather mean 
a veil which was worn by the false prophets. 
The article was evidently worn on the head, 
and adapted in length to the stature of the 
wearer. Etymologically the term might 
mean veil, head-dress or mantle. 3 
10. The Girdle. — Where long flowing robes were customary, 
the girdle would be a great convenience, not to say necessity. It 
has always been worn by both men and women in the East, and used 
not only to bind the clothing about the body, but for fastening it up 
when greater freedom of movement was required. In the Bible, 
with the exception of mourning garments and the fishing-coat of 
Peter, the girdle is uniformly represented as bound around the tunic. 4 
There are a number of different names given to the girdle in the 
Hebrew, but with the exception of abnet, the term applied to the 
priest's, they seem to be used in the Bible somewhat indiscrimi- 
nately. Their material was ordinarily leather or some kind of cloth. 
They were either wound in several folds around the body or fastened 
with clasps. In all periods it was the fashion to ornament them, 




Dress and Veil of a Syrian or 
Eastern Woman. 



i Cant, l 
13:18,21. 



, :i ; r, : 7 ; Lsa. 47 : 2. * Ex. 34 : 33-35 ; cf. mth, garment in Gen. 49 : 11. 
* 2 Sara. 3:31; John 21: 7, 



Ezek. 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 



93 




more or less. Girdles of gold were not unknown, as we may infer 
from a few passages. 1 

As already observed, the clothing being gathered up at the breast 
by means of the girdle, the bosom offered a convenient place for the 
carrying of various articles. God is besought in the psalm to pluck 
his hand out of his bosom. 2 The modern Oriental carries here his 
handkerchief, smoking-materials, con- 
veniences for writing, and the like. So, 
in Ezekiel, we read of one who carried 
a writer's ink-horn " by his side."^ This 
was a long tube containing reed pens 
and a receptacle for ink, all securely 

fastened to the girdle. Attached to A 9 D( f nt Eastern Girdles 1 Egyptian. 
° , 2. Assyrian. {From British Museum.) 

the same, also, the warrior wore his 

sword. 4 It is here that the modern Arab wears his dagger. Women 
wore their girdles lower down and looser than the men. Priests, on 
the other hand, and other dignitaries, were girded about the breast. 5 
The frequent figure of girding up the loins, as referring to prepara- 
tion for a journey, a race, or for battle, suggests the likelihood that 
the girdle was not used by the Israelites when they were engaged in 
their ordinary pursuits, their dress then being of a very simple char- 
acter. In Luke 17 : 8 it is doubtful whether a girding up of the 
tunic is meant, or one like that of our Lord when he laid aside his 
upper garment, and "took a towel, and girded himself" (with it). 6 

11. The Turban. — From the earliest times, in the East, a simple 
or more complex form of the turban has been worn as a covering 

for the head. In its modern style, 
it consists of three parts : a simple 
closely-fitting cap of cotton cloth; 
a similar, but heavier, cap of felt, 
generally in some bright color, and 
wadded; and, finally, the turban 
g. proper. This is a piece of cloth of 
such size and material as the wearer 
desires or can afford. It may be of 
muslin, of silk, or even of cashmere. At present, where there is 
Moslem rule, the colors to be worn are strictly prescribed, subject 
races being confined to the more sombre ones. In some cases the 




Syrian Turbans. 



1 2 Kings 1:8; Jer. 13 : 1 ; Ezek. 16 : 10 ; Dan. 10:5; Matt. 3:4; Rev. 1 : 13 ; 15 : 6. 2 p s . 

74 : 11. s Ezek. 9:2. * Judg. 3 : 16 ; 2 Sam. 20 : 8 ; Ps. 45 : 3. 5 R ev . 1 : 13 ; Josephus, 

Antiq.,Z,l:2. «Juhnl3:4. 



94 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



turban is of immense size, a single one being known to require as 
many as seventy-five yards of material. The word used in the Old 
Testament for the ordinary turban is tsaniph. 1 Its etymology shows 
that, like the modern article, it meant originally something wrapped 
about the head. Another sort, an ornamental head-dress, intended 
to be worn especially ou festival occasions, was named peer. 2 The 
Babylonian turban, once mentioned in the Bible, was called tibulim; 3 
and the high cap of the Israelitish priest, migbaah? There is no direct 
evidence that the turban was worn by the Israelites in the Mosaic 
age. On its first appearance it is found among the ruling class, the 
wealthy or the female sex. 5 It is not improbable that ordinarily the 
Israelites wore nothing on their heads, unless it were a simple hand- 
kerchief as is the case with the Bedouin of the present day. 6 

12. Sandals. — For the protection of the feet, the Hebrews, like 
other eastern peoples, wore sandals. In the most primitive form 




Eastern Sandals with Thongs or " Shoe-latchets." 

they consisted simply of pieces of untanned hide bound to the soles 
of the feet by thongs. These thongs, the "shoe-latchet" of the Eng- 
lish version, are the subject of frequent mention in the Bible. 7 In 
later times not only leather but felt, various kinds of cloth, and wood 
shod with iron, were used as material for sandals. When a piece of 
leather was taken it was generally cut a little larger than the foot, 
so that its edges being drawn up by the thongs would the better pro- 
tect it. This kind of sandal, hardly worthy of the title "shoe" 
uniformly given it in the English Bible, is still somewhat worn by 
shepherds and the common people in the East, and even by the 
peasantry of Europe. 



i Job 29 : 14. n - Isa. 61 : 3, 10 ; Ezok 24 : 17, 23. s Ezek. 23 ■ 15. * Ex. 29 : 9. 6 Job 
29 : 14 ; Isa. 8 : 23. c Jolni 11:44; 20 : 7 ; cf. Acts 19 : 12. 1 Gen. 14 : 23 ; Isa. 5 : 27 ; Mark 
1:7; John 1:27. 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 95 

The monuments of Egypt show that sandals were in use there 
among nearly all classes. The Egyptian sandal, however, had gen- 
erally the peculiarity that it Avas high and pointed at the toe. In 
Assyria, on the other hand, an effort was made to protect more the 
side and heel of the foot. The ambassadors of Jehu are represented 
on an Assyrian monument now in the British Museum, as having 
sandals of this sort which reached to the ankles. It is possible that 
this is only a reflection of the Assyrian custom. The prophet Isaiah, 
in speaking of the Assyrian soldiery, in one place says that " every 
boot of the booted warrior" shall be fuel for the flames. 1 A single 
incidental reference suggests the possibility that the Israelitish sol- 
diery had likewise a special protection for their feet. 2 

It is evident that all classes, unless it were the extremely poor 
like the prodigal in the Gospel, 3 wore sandals when they were out 
of doors. Their disuse was a token of bereavement. 4 Our Lord in 
sending forth his messengers forbade their taking two pairs, but did 
not insist upon their taking none. 5 The Israelites seem to have been 
provided with them on their flight from Egypt; 6 and the prophet 
Amos can find no more fitting illustration of the lack of apprecia- 
tion for the poor in his day among their rich neighbors than the 
fact that they were willing to sell them even for a pair of sandals. 7 
Sandals worn by women did not differ essentially from those of the 
men except in being often of finer material and more highly orna- 
mented. Seal or porpoise skins were sometimes used for this class, 
and the thongs were beautifully embroidered. The eyes of Olofer- 
nes are said to have been " ravished " by the sandals of the designing 
Judith. 8 Sandals were not generally worn in the house ; at least, 
they are not in modern times where there are carpets or mats. But 
the custom of leaving them at the door of private dwellings or 
rooms is to be carefully distinguished from that illustrated in Ex- 
odus 3 : 5, where Moses was bidden to put off his shoes because the 
place where he stood was holy ground. The former custom arose, 
it is likely, from motives of cleanliness. It is now considered the 
duty of servants in the East to care for the sandals of their master. 
We are told that when a man of wealth rides through the streets 
of an Oriental city, one of his throng of servants is often seen carry- 
ing his shoes. To some such service John the Baptist may have 
referred when he said of Christ, " whose shoes I am not worthy to 

1 Tsa. 9 : 5, margin. 2 i Kines 2:5. 3 Luke 15 : 22. * 2 Sam. 15 : 30 ; Ezek. 24 : 17. 

5 Matt. 10 : 10 ; Luke 10 : 4. g Ex. 12 : 11. t Amos 8 : 6. « Cant. 7 : 1 ; Ezek. 16 : 10; 

Judith 10 : 4 ; 16 : 9. 




96 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

bear." 1 There is no reference to gloves in the Bible; but the Tal- 
mud mentions their use by laborers for the protection of the hands. 
The " aprons" spoken of in Acts 19 : 12 seem to have been articles 
made from linen, which workmen put on after laying off the outer 
garment, worn much as the modern apron is worn, and for similar 
purposes. 

13. A singular custom of the Israelites connected with that of 
levirate marriage is worthy of mention at this point. If the man to 
whom the option of such a marriage was given publicly refused to 
take the widow of his deceased brother under the conditions imposed 

by the law, it was her privilege, if 
she chose to exercise it, to humil- 
iate him in the manner set forth 
in the following passage : " Then 
shall his brother's wife come unto 
him in the presence of the elders, 
and loose his shoe from off his 
foot, and spit in his face ; and she 
Eastern shoes and Boots. shall answer and say, So shall it 

be done unto the man that doth 
not build up his brother's house.'" 2 According to Jewish author- 
ities, the spitting was done before the face of the offender, that is, 
in his presence. The drawing off of the shoe seems to have been 
symbolical of the surrender of the rights which the law gave to a 
levir, or brother-in-law. 

A similar ceremony will be recalled as having taken place in con- 
nection with the marriage of Boaz and Ruth. 3 The person legally 
best entitled to be a suitor for the hand of the Moabitess voluntarily 
drew off his sandal in token that he relinquished his right in favor 
of Boaz. It seems likely that the same general meaning is to be 
given the passage in the Psalms where it is said, "Upon Edom will 
I cast my shoe." 4 The context shows that authority is not claimed 
over Edom, or that Edom is expected to take the servant's place 
and carry the sandals of the master, but that Edom is renounced 
and spurned. The Arabs of the present day often use the expres- 
sion " My shoe at thee !" as an utterance of depreciation or contempt. 
The custom of throwing a slipper sportively after a newly-wedded 
pair leaving the parental roof would appear to have a like origin. 
The parents and family friends thereby symbolically renounce their 
ri<2;ht to the daughter or son in favor of the husband or wife. 

i Matt. 3:11. 2 D eu t. 25 : 9. s Ruth 4:7. * Vs. GO : 8 ; 108 : 9. 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 97 

14. Rhetorical Figures Referring to Clothing. — The fre- 
quent figure of girding up the clothing as a sign of readiness for 
action has already been referred to. 1 A prophet named Agabus, it 
will be remembered, once bound his own feet and hands with Paul's 
girdle, saying, " Thus shall the Jews at Jerusalem bind the man that 
owneth this girdle." 2 So, too, "making bare the arm" — that is. 
rolling up the flowing sleeve — was a sign of preparation to use the 
arm to the best advantage in whatever service might be required 
of it. 3 Again, rending the garments, as we have already seen, was 
one of the most common outward indications of violent mental agita- 
tion, whether of fear, anger or overwhelm- 
ing grief; 4 while simply shaking them was 
a mark of renunciation. 5 The outer robs 
was even sometimes stripped off and cast 
away in a moment of excited feeling. 6 The 
Hebrews, moreover, well understood the 
symbolism of form and colors in clothing. 
We read in the New Testament of those who 
wore "sheep's" clothing, "long" clothing, 
"fine" clothing, "soft" and "bright" cloth- 
ing ; and of others who repented " in sack- Girded for WaItingj with stafl . 
cloth and ashes." 7 Homage toward a su- 
perior might be expressed by spreading one's garments in the way 
which he would pass over. 8 To exchange garments was a sign of 
friendship. 9 To make a present of official robes indicated investi- 
ture with office; and taking them away, a deprivation of the same. 10 
A keeper of the wardrobe is spoken of in one passage ; and there 
is evidence that special rooms were sometimes set apart for the 
storing of garments. 11 

15. Ornaments. — Among the ornaments worn by the Hebrews, 
some were common to both sexes and others were peculiar to each. 
It would be a mistake to suppose that male ornaments were con- 
fined in ancient times to the staff and the seal-ring. We are informed 
that Saul wore a bracelet on his arm even in battle ; while chains for 
the neck and rings for the ears and fingers seem not to have been 
uncommon. 12 The use of the staff was by no means confined to inva- 
lids or old men. In the rough mountain-passes of Palestine it was a 

l Ex. 12: 11: 2 Kings 4 : 29 ; 9 : 1 ; Job 38 : 3 ; Ps. 18 : 32 ; Isa. 5 : 27 ; 1 Peter 1:13. 2 Acts 

21:11. 3 i sa , 52:10. * Jurlg. 11 : 35; 1 Kings 21 :27 ; 2 Kings 5 : 7. 5 Luke 9 : 5 ; Acts 

18:6. 6 1 Sara. 19 : 24 : Acts 22 : 23. * Matt. 7 : 15 ; 11 : 8, 21 ; Mark 12 : 38 ; James 2 : 3. 

8 Matt. 21:8. «1 Sam. 18: 4. io Gen. 41 : 42; Esth. 8 : 15; Isa. 22 : 21. " 2 Kings 10 : 22; 
2 Chron. 34 : 22. 12 Gen. 35:4; 38:18,25; 41:42; Ex. 32:2; 2 Sam. 1:10; Ps. 73:6. 

7 




98 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



no less grateful companion than it now is to climbers of the Swiss 
Alps. 1 The disciples of our Lord, notwithstanding the meagreness 
of their outfit, were permitted to carry a staff. 2 As a weapon of 
defence, moreover, it was not to be despised. The intrepid David 
appeared before Goliath armed only with a staff and a sling. 3 Ben- 
aiah, the son of Jehoiada, by means of his staff alone plucked the 
weapon out of the hands of an Egyptian and slew him with his own 
spear. 4 The staff seems generally to have been a long, straight stick 
much like the modern alpenstock. For purposes of ornament it was 
highly carved. Herodotus, in speaking of the ancient Babylonians, 
says : " Every one carries a seal, and a walking-stick carved at the 
top into the form of an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, or something 
similar ; for it is not their habit to use a stick without an orna- 
ment." 5 Such a staff, it is likely, Judah carried with his other 
ornaments on the occasion mentioned in Genesis 38 : 18, 25. The 
prophet Hosea refers to a custom among the apostates of his day of 
having the image of an idol — a sort of teraphim — engraved on the 
top of their walking-sticks. 6 Metaphorical references to the staff 
are common in the Old Testament. We read, for example, of the 
" staff of bread." So, too, the civil and military power of a country 
is called its staff. 7 Much prominence is given in the Bible to the 
staff of Moses, of Aaron and of Elisha. 

16. Finger-rings were no doubt common at all periods among the 
more opulent Hebrews, as the monu- 
ments and history show that they were 
among the Egyptians, Greeks and Ro- 
mans. In the Epistle of James (2 : 2) it 
is the man who wears the " fine clothing" 
that has the "gold ring;" or more liter- 
ally, according to the Greek, is " gold 
ringed," that is, has a profusion of rings. 
The use of seal-rings also prevailed in 
the remotest antiquity. The fact that 
they were known to the patriarchs is well 
attested. The signet of Judah was not 
worn on the finger, but was suspended from the neck as is made 
evident by the improved rendering of the revised English version. 8 
The museums of Europe and this country contain numerous speci- 




Assyrian Finger- rings and 
Bracelets. 



i Ex. 12 : 11 ; 21 : 19 ; Zech. 8:4. 2 Mark 6 : 8. 

6 Herodotus i. 195. 6 Hosea 4 : 12. 1 Lev. 26 : 26 
38 : 18, 25. 



3 1 Sam. 17:48. 
Ps. 105:16; Isa. 9:4: 



«2Sam. 23:21. 
10:24. BQen, 




DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 99 

mens of seal-rings, some of them dating back to days anterior to 
Abraham, and coming, it is claimed, from the very " Ur of the 
Chaldees" which was the home of his ancestors. They differ in 
form, but are generally cylindrical and from half an inch to three 
inches in length. Their material is amethyst, rock crystal, carne- 
lian, agate, chalcedony, onyx, jasper and other like substances. 
Sometimes they are of composite material, black manganese being 
the principal ingredient. They are pierced so that they can be 
worn on the finger or around the neck, or conveniently rolled over 
the clay. In Canticles 1 there is a reference to both the former 
methods of wearing the signet, within 
the compass of a single verse. The 
high value put upon it is well set 
forth in a passage in Jeremiah: "As 
I live, saith the Lord, though Coniah 
the son of Jehoiakim . . . were the 
signet upon my right hand, yet would 
I pluck thee thence." 2 The inscrip- 
tion might be the owner's name with 
that of his father, or some title of the 

' . Oriental Cylindrical Metal Seal. 

deity whom he served. By using a 

finer quality of clay, not simply papyrus and other book rolls, and 
letters, but also purses, doors and like things, could be sealed. 3 
The custom of making an impression with the seal upon the fore- 
head of a person is several times alluded to in the Scriptures, and 
is still known among the Arabians and Persians. 4 In Assyria the 
document to be sealed was itself often of clay, and was not hard- 
ened until after it had been inscribed and sealed. In Egypt, on 
the other hand, the more general custom was first to impress the seal 
upon a piece of clay and then affix it to the object. The use of the 
signet as a symbol of authority is well known. 

17. It will not be out of place to speak here of what were termed 
in the Old Testament " frontlets," and in the New " phylacteries." 
They can hardly be regarded as ornaments ; but as an important 
part of the costume of an Israelite of the later times, they should 
not be overlooked. The Talmudists called them tephillin, a word 
not found in the Bible. Certain passages of the Pentateuch enjoin- 
ing that the law should be a sign upon the hand and for frontlets 
between the eyes — symbolically referring, perhaps, to ornaments 

1 Cant. 8:6; cf. Ex. 35 : 22 ; Isa. 3 : 21. 2 j er . 22 : 24. 3 i Kings 21 : 8 ; Esth. 8:8; Job 
14:17; Isa. 29 : 11 ; Dan. 6 : 17 ; Matt. 27 : GG. 4 Gal. G: 17; Rev. 7 : 3. 



100 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



then in use — were understood literally by the Jews. 1 Accordingly, 
inscribing these passages upon several slips of parchment and inclos- 
ing them in a leathern case prepared for the purpose, they bound the 
whole on the forehead between the eyes. The same passages written 
on one strip of parchment and inclosed iu a similar case were bound 
on the left arm near the elbow. The Talmud contains the most 
minute and finical regulations concerning the whole matter. Our 
Lord's strictures on this custom referred less to the custom than to 
its abuse. 2 The Pharisees made these awkward leathern cases as 
conspicuous as possible, so as to attract the more attention to them- 
selves and their pretentious legalism. It came still later to be held 
that God himself wears tephillin, and that when he swears by his 
holy arm he makes specific reference to them. 3 

18. On both the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments men appear 
wearing the arm-ring or bracelet ; and 
though infrequently mentioned in the 
Bible, we find it used as an ornament by 
both sexes among the Hebrews. 4 The 
son of Sirach likens the instruction given 
to a sensible man to "a bracelet on his 
right arm." 5 While bone and ivory may 
have been made use of for bracelets, the 
precious metals seem to have been gener- 
ally preferred. In shape, size and em- 
bellishment, as in cost, they were suited 
to every taste. 

19. The necklace, or ornamental chain for the neck, was another 
device employed by both sexes to heighten their personal charms. It 
might consist of a single band or chain, or of a series of ornaments as 
pearls, pieces of coral, or diamonds strung together. It is spoken of 
in one place as a "string of jewels." 6 The chain which Pharaoh put 
upon the neck of Joseph and that with which Belshazzar sought to do 
honor to Daniel were both of gold, and no doubt of extraordinary 
size and richness. 7 Even animals ridden by kings were sometimes so 
decorated. 8 Biblical writers knew how to distinguish between a proper 
and an improper use of such ornamentation. Sometimes, according 
to them, it only served to set forth the pride of the arrogant ; but some- 
times it equally illustrated the charm of inward grace and dutifulness. 9 




Royal Armlets, found at Khorsabad, 
Assyria. 



i Ex. 13 : 9, 10, 16, 17 ; Deut. 6 : 4-9, 13-22. 2 Matt. 23 : 5. 3 Cf. Dent. 33 : 2 ; Isa. 49 : 16 : 62 : 8. 
4 Gen. 24 : 22 ; Num. 31 : 50 ; 2 Sam. 1:10; Ezek. 16 : 11. 6 Ecclus. 21 : 21. » Cant, 1:10; cf. 
4:9. 1 Gen. 41 : 42 ; Dan. 5 : 29. » j u dg. S : 26. *> Ps.*73 : 6 ; Prov. 1:9; cf. Ezek. 10:11. 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 101 

20. Along with brooches, signet-rings and armlets, " all of gold," 
ear-rings are mentioned as in use by Hebrew women of the Mosaic 
period, as well as by their children of both sexes, and, it may be 
safely inferred, by adult males as was customary among other con- 
temporaneous peoples. 1 One of the Hebrew words rendered ear-ring 
(nezem) sometimes means nose-ring as well ; but when this is the 
case it is indicated by the context. 2 Pendants of various sorts were 
often attached to the ear-rings. 3 The size of the latter varied accord- 
ing to taste ; but as a rule they were probably larger than those worn 
by the women of the western world. Layard describes some which 
he saw in the East, which reached to the waist and terminated in a 
tablet of the same material. 
Another writer, speaking of 
the wife of the king of Nu- 
bia, describes her ear-rings as 
reaching down to her shoulders 
and having the appearance of 
wings. The rings themselves 
were five inches in diameter 
and nearly of the thickness of 
the little finger. The orifice 
pierced for them had become 

SO enlarged that three fin- Eastern Women with Nose-ring, Veils and 
° Head-dress. 

gers could have been passed 

through it above the ring. The fact that ear-rings, like other orna- 
ments, were sometimes looked upon in the light of charms even by 
the Hebrews may be inferred from Genesis 35 : 4, where it is said of 
Jacob's household that, in response to his appeal to purify them- 
selves, they gave him " all the strange gods which were in their 
hand, and the rings which were in their ears ; and Jacob hid them 
under the oak which was by Shechem." 

21. It is rare in the East at the present day to see a woman of 
the lower classes the cartilage of whose nose has not been pierced 
for the purpose of accommodating it to ornaments. The custom, to 
some extent, is followed by men also, cases occurring where the nose 
and ears are connected by a series of rings interlinked with one 
another. In biblical literature such a practice may be traced back 
to the time of Abraham. Among the gifts which the trusted Eli- 
ezer presented to Kebekah, and even placed upon her face, was a 

i Ex. 32 : 2 ; 35 : 22 ; Num. 31 : 50 ; Judg. 8 : 24, 26. 2 with Gen. 24 : 47 ; Prov. 11 : 22 ; Isa. 

3 : 21 ; Ezek. 16 : 12 ; compare Gen. 35 : 4 ; Ex. 32 : 2 ; Prov. 25 : 12. 3 j u d g . 8 : 26 ; Isa. 3 : 19. 




102 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

golden nose-ring of half a shekel's weight. 1 In modern times these 
rings are often of extraordinary size. Not infrequently they reach 
to the mouth and must be removed in eating, beside seriously in- 
commoding the breathing at all times. It was a sharp sarcasm on 
the weakness for finery often shown by persons having no intellect- 
ual or moral qualities to compel attention that inspired the proverb 
"As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman which is 
without discretion." 2 

22. Another occasional device of both sexes for ornamentation 
was the garland, or chaplet of leaves or flowers. " Let us crown 
ourselves with rosebuds before they are withered," says the Epicurean 
author of the apocryphal book of Wisdom, " and let there be no 
meadow untrod by our luxury." 3 The custom probably originated 
with the simple fillet employed to keep the hair in place. In con- 
trast with the fading substances used for such purposes the prophet 
Isaiah declares that Jehovah of hosts shall be " for a crown of glory, 
and for a diadem of beauty, unto the residue of his people." 4 In 
similar language the apostle Paul calls attention to the wreaths of 
pine and laurel given to the victors in the Grecian games : " Now 
they do it to receive a corruptible crown ; but we an incorruptible." 5 

Although glass was not unknown, the mirrors mentioned in 
the Bible were doubtless made of metal. This was certainly true, 
judging from the use to which they were put, of those spoken of in 
Exodus 38 : 8. It is likely that the Hebrews obtained their first 
mirrors from Egypt, where, even before the exodus, the art of mak- 
ing them had attained a high degree of perfection. The monuments 
show that in form they closely resembled the hand-mirrors of the 
present day, and were seldom much larger. They were made prin- 
cipally of copper, or of copper mixed with tin, although silver and 
other more costly metals were also employed for the purpose, espe- 
cially in the later times. They were kept bright by polishing. 6 
Whether little mirrors were ever substituted by the Hebrew women, 
as by those of some other peoples, for ornamental purposes in place 
of precious stones cannot be determined with certainty. Two New 
Testament writers refer to the mirror by way of illustration. 7 

23. Of ornaments usually worn or carried by women alone the fol- 
lowing claim attention here : cauls, anklets and ankle-chains, scent- 
bottles, and decorated purses or " satchels." They are all mentioned 

1 Gen. 24 : 22, 47 ; cf. Ezek. 16 : 12. 2 p rov . n : 22. s Wisd. 2 : 8 ; cf. Ecdus. 1:11; S Mace. 
7 : 16. * Isa. 28 : 5 ; cf. Prov. 1 : 9 ; 4 : 9. & 1 Cor. 9 : 25 ; cf. 2 Tim. 2 : . r > ; j amea 1 : 12 ; 1 Pet, 
6:4; Rev. 12 : 1. 6 Wisd. 7 : 26 ; Ecclus. 12 : 11. i 1 Cor. 13 : 12 ; James 1 : 24 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 



103 



in a single passage of Isaiah. 1 The caul, nowhere else referred to in 
the Bible, seems to have been a band or fillet, which was worn across 
the forehead for the purpose of attaching to it the net in which the 
flowing hair was retained. The anklet was a more or less embel- 
lished band of gold, silver or other metal fastened around the ankle. 
The sound the anklets made as oue walked 
and struck them together seems to have 
been one of their chief attractions. They 
are still worn in Egypt and in the rural 
districts of western Asia. Livingstone 
found the custom prevailing also in Africa, 
where rings of iron are used. To these, 
little bits of metal are attached in order 
that, like the women of ancient Israel, they 
may " make a tinkling with their feet." 

Attached to the anklets also, besides 
pendants of various kinds, including, it is 
likely, little bells, there were in the ancient 
times so-called " ankle-chains," which con- 
nected the feet together. They were in- 
tended to compel those who wore them to 
take short, mincing steps, which seem to 
have characterized the fashionable gait of 
that period. The prophet has only censure 
for those " daughters of Zion " who are 
haughty, and " walk with stretched forth 
necks and wanton eyes, walking and min- 
cing as they go." 2 

24. Perfumery. — The "perfume boxes" mentioned in Isaiah 
were little caskets or vases filled with perfume and carried, it is to 
be presumed, in the girdle. Perfumes manufactured from native 
and imported spices were very much used by the Hebrews, and 
various methods of applying them are noted. In Canticles 1:13, for 
example, there is an allusion to a kind of scent-bag worn on the 
person. In another passage of the same book the use of incense for 
a similar purpose is referred to. 3 

25. When ornamental purses are spoken of in the Scriptures, it 
is probable that the ordinary purse, embroidered in bright colors or 
decorated with jewels, is meant. Besides the girdle, which was often 
made use of for this purpose, the Hebrews employed, especially on 

llsa. 3:18. >Isa.3:16. 3 Cant. 3: 6; cf. Prov. 7 : 17; 27: 9; Isa. 57:9. 




Anklets. 

1, 2, 3, 4. Egyptian Anklets. 5. Modern, 
worn by dancing-girls. 6, 7. Assyrian, of 
iron and bronze. (From Nineveh. Now in 
British Museum.) 



104 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



journeys, a little bag in which to carry their money and the weights 
needed to determine its value. 1 

26. The Hair. — The hair was always highly esteemed by the 
Hebrews as an ornament of the person, whether in youth or in old 
age.* 2 It is a singular fact that while it was customary in Egypt for 
males to shave the head and to wear wigs, and for the Assyrians to 
let the hair grow long, the Hebrews adopted neither of these meth- 
ods, but regularly trimmed the hair both of the head and beard to 
prevent too great luxuriance. This custom may have been brought 
about, in the first instance, by the very common practice among 
heathen nations of offering locks of hair in sacrifice to their gods. 
The Mosaic laws, it is true, prescribe no one way of wearing the 
hair, except that both priests and people are prohibited from inter- 
fering with its orderly growth, whether on the head or the face. 
They might not cut it off in certain spots only, as a sign of mourn- 
ing, and in imitation of the heathen nations about them. 3 

But in the book of Ezekiel the priests are bidden to "poll," that 
is, trim, their hair, in distinction from shaving it off or letting it 
grow long in the form of locks;* and there 
is every reason to suppose that the laity 
followed the same practice without being 
specially enjoined to do so. Extremely long 
hair was the acknowledged badge of the 
Nazarite. 5 The case of Absalom was clearly 
an exception to ordinary rules for adults ; 6 
and Josephus mentions it as a singular habit 
of the body-guard of Solomon that they 
wore long hair. 7 The same conclusion is 
reached when we consider that to let the 
hair grow and remain uncared for was re- 
garded as a symbol of distress and sorrow, 
and was also particularly enjoined on the 
leper. 8 Still, it is probable that the Hebrews wore their hair some- 
what longer than is common with us, and may have taken some 
means of confining it close to the head. This would seem to follow 
from some incidental expressions of the Bible, such as letting the 
" hair go loose" and " uncovering the ear," that is, to hear. 9 Luxu- 
riant black hair was specially prized, and none the less if it was curly. 

i Gen. 42 : 35 ; Deut. 25 : 13 ; Micah 6:11; Luke 10 : 4 ; 12 : 33. n - 2 Sam. 14 : 26 ; 2 Kings '-! : 
23 ; Prov. 16 : 31. 3 T iev . 19 : 27 ; 21 : 5; Deut. 14:1; but cf. Job 1 : 20 ; Jer. 7 : 29 ; 16 : 6 ; 41 : r <. 
4 Ezek. 44 : 20. & Num. 6:5; 1 Sam. 1 : 11. fi 2 Sam. 14 : 25. » Josephus, Antiq. S, 7 : 3. 
8 Lev. 13 : 45 ; 21 : 10. » Lev. 10 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 20 ; 2 (margin), 12 ; cf. Ezek. 24 : 17. 




Egyptian Mode of Wearing the 

Hair. (From a painting in 

British Museum.) 



DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 105 

There is no evidence that the Israelites ever sought to disguise 
the signs of age appearing in gray hair. Josephus, however, alleges 
that Herod did this, and we know that it was common with the 
Greeks and Romans. 1 With the Hebrews, on the contrary, the 
hoary head was looked upon as a mark of dignity and honor. This 
is not only directly stated, but is incidentally confirmed by the fact 
that God himself is represented in vision with snowy-white hair. 2 
The occupation of the barber was well known at all periods. 3 A 
woman named Mariam, acting in this capacity, is mentioned in the 
Talmud. The Bible gives us little information concerning modes 
of dressing the hair. That of women, which was worn long, seems 
often to have been braided. New Testament writers, in making 
reference to this fact, did so, it is likely, less with the view of cen- 
suring the practice than of cautioning Christian women against 
giving too much attention to the " outward adorning of plaiting the 
hair, and of wearing jewels of gold, or of putting on apparel." 4 
Egyptian women used combs and other similar devices for keeping 
the hair in place. It is most probable that the same appliances 
were early adopted in Palestine. According to Josephus, in Sol- 
omon's time gold-dust was sometimes sprinkled on the hair in order 
to increase the brilliancy of its effects. 5 The custom of anointing it, 
especially on festival occasions, dates back to the earliest periods. 6 
Head-tires, too, are several times spoken of in the Scriptures, but 
without any definite description of them. 7 

27. Pigments. — The practice of applying pigments to the eyelids 
and eyebrows in order to enhance the apparent brilliancy of the 
eyes was common throughout the East in Bible times. The prophet 
Jeremiah, addressing Israel, says, " Though thou clothest thyself 
with scarlet, though thou deckest thee with ornaments of gold, 
though thou enlargest (roundest) thine eyes with paint, in vain dost 
thou make thyself fair ; thy lovers despise thee, they seek thy life." 8 
The material used for this purpose was often kept in a horn, a fact 
which seems to have given rise to the name of Job's third daughter, 
Keren-happueh, which means, literally, "the pigment-horn." 9 Be- 
sides puch, the paint was also called kachal, and is so named to this 
day among the Arabs. It is a preparation of antimony, and, singu- 
larly enough, it is from this word that the term "alcohol" comes; 
the fineness of the powder suggesting the idea of highly-rectified 

1 Josephus, Aniiq. 16, 8 : 1 ; cf. Matt. 5 : 36. 2 Lev. 19 : 32 ; Prov. 16 : 31 ; Dan. 7:9; Rev. 1 : 
14. 3 Num. 6:5; Ps. 52:2; Isa. 7:20; Ezek. 5:1. * 1 Tim. 2 : 9; 1 Pet. 3 : 2. 5 Jose- 
phus, Antiq. 8, 7 : 3. 6 R u th 3 : 3 ; 2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Ps. 23 : 5 ; Matt. 6 : 17 ; Luke 7 : 46. i 2 Kings 
9:30; Isa. 3:20; 61:3, 10. » Jer. 4:30; cf. Prov. 6 : 25 ; Isa. 3:24. 9 Job 42 : 14. 



106 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



spirits. This pigment is applied to the eyelids by modern Egyptian 
women by means of a small, blunt piece of wood or ivory, which is 
moistened, dipped in the mixture and then drawn carefully along 
the edges of the eye. Boxes containing the substance have been 
brought to light in considerable numbers from Egyptian tombs. 

28. That Hebrew women 
tattooed their skin or painted 
the soles of their feet, the 
palms of their hands, or their 
nails, as is now customary 
with the women of western 
Asia, does not appear to be 
supported by valid evidence 
from the Scriptures. 1 That 
all classes made great use of 
the bath is clear from the Mo- 
saic laws of purification — 
which are based on this cus- 
tom — as well as from certain 

Egyptian Woman, with Eyes and Skin Tattooed. uni f orm rites Q f hospitality. 2 

The practice of anointing the skin was also widespread in the East 
at all times. That the Hebrews highly regarded it might be inferred 
from the fact that the holy anointing oil used in consecrating the 
priests was prohibited to the laity for ordinary purposes. 3 We read 
in the poetic language of Canticles of one whose " hands dropped 
with myrrh" and her "fingers with liquid myrrh;" 4 and it is said 
in the Psalms, of the royal bride, " All thy garments smell of myrrh, 
and aloes, and cassia." 5 




i See Lev. 19:28; 21 : 5 ; Deut. 14 : 1. 
4 Cant. 5:5. & p s . 45 : 8. 



2 Gen. 18 : 4 ; 24 : 32 ; liuth 3 : 3. 



Ex. 30 : 22- 



CHAPTER V. 

PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 

1. The earliest occupations of men, according to the Scriptures, 
were tilling the ground and rearing cattle and sheep. Down to the 
present day forms of labor directly connected with these two have 
always engaged the attention of large portions of our race. Pas- 
toral life in the East, in which the calling of the herdsman as well 
as that of the shepherd is here included, is doubtless at the present 
time very much what it was in the times of Abraham and David. 
We read of the former that the Lord gave him " flocks and herds, 
silver and gold, and menservants and maidservants, and camels and 
asses." 1 When the family of Jacob went down into Egypt they 
asked permission of Pharaoh to settle in the rich pasture-lands of 
Goshen. " Thy servants," they said to him, " have been keepers of 
cattle from our youth even until now, both we, and our fathers." 2 
It was with their herds that they made their exodus from Egypt. 3 
Two and a half tribes finally settled east of the Jordan, for the reason 
that this region was especially suited to grazing.* 

Some conception of the extent to which this business was carried 
on may be gained from the ever-recurring metaphors of the Old and 
New Testaments based upon it, from the immense number of cattle 
that were yearly required for sacrifice, and from the fact that sheep 
and cattle are so often mentioned among the blessings of a pros- 
perous people. Numerous laws of the Pentateuch were shaped with 
express reference to the fact that property consisted largely in cattle. 
In fact, the same Hebrew word signified property in general and 
property in flocks and herds. 

2. Rearing of Sheep. — Formerly, as now, sheep were the most 
numerous and important of domestic animals in the East. 5 Just 
previous to their crossing the Jordan the Hebrews took away from 
the Midianites, along with other booty, not less than six hundred 
and seventy-five thousand head. 6 Nabal, the rich Carmelite, had a 
flock of three thousand sheep and one thousand goats. 7 At the ded- 
ication of the temple Solomon is said to have offered in sacrifice 

i Gen. 24:35. 2 Gen. 46 : 34; 47 : 3. 3 Ex. 12:32. * Num. 32 : 1. BDeut. 8:13; 

28 : 4 ; Jer. 31 : 27 ; Zech. 2:4. o Num. 31 : 32. U Sam. 25 : 2. 

107 



108 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

twenty-two thousand oxen and a hundred and twenty thousand 
sheep. 1 In later times the king of Moab paid to King Ahab an 
annual tribute of a hundred thousand rams with their wool, and as 
many more lambs ; 2 and on the monuments of Assyria it is recorded 
that Sennacherib in a war with Merodach-Baladan captured on ons 
occasion eight hundred thousand sheep and goats. 

The sheep most common in Syria and Palestine is what is known 
as the broad-tailed species. A variety of the sort generally found 
among western peoples is also seen, but far less frequently. The 
former have been reared in the East from time immemorial. They 
are mentioned by classical writers, and are doubtless referred to in 
several passages of the Pentateuch in connection with sacrifices. 3 
The tail of this sheep is little else than a mass of fat, which is de- 
scribed as of delicate quality, being superior to tallow, though not 
equal to butter. It is made great use of in the preparation of a 
large number of Oriental dishes. Ordinarily the entire tail weighs 
about twenty pounds, though sometimes considerably more. 

The color of sheep was usually white, and only exceptionally 
black or speckled. 4 They bear in the East twice yearly, the later 
lambs being regarded as the stronger. We find many illustra- 
tions in the Scriptures based on the natural qualities or habits of 
this animal. Its uncomplaining patience, for example, is noticed ; 
its tractability ; its strong attachment to the shepherd, especially 
that of a pet lamb ; its innocence ; the peculiarity that leads the 
whole flock to follow the leader ; its helplessness when left without a 
shepherd ; and the miserable plight of a wandering and lost sheep. 3 

It is customary now in the East, as it was in Bible times, to give 
names to individual sheep, to which they respond. Our Lord, 
speaking of himself as the true shepherd, declares, " the sheep hear 
his voice : and he calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them 
out." 6 And it is said of him in prophecy that "he shall feed his 
flock like a shepherd, he shall gather the lambs in his arms, and 
carry them in his bosom, and shall gently lead those that give 
suck." 7 

Of the various uses to which sheep were put, emphasis is laid in 
the Bible chiefly on their employment as offerings and for food and 
clothing. For the first object lambs of the first year were the most 
common ; although sheep under three years old, and especially rams, 

11 Kings 8 :63. « 2 Kings 3 : 4 (margin). « Ex.29: 22; Lev. 7: 8; 8:25; 9:19. * Gen. 
30 : 32 ; Cant. 4:2; Dan. 7:9. 6 Num. 27 : 17 ; 2 Sam. 12 : 3 ; 24 : 17 ; 1 K IngS 22 : 17 ; Tsa. 53 : 7 ; 
Ezek. 34 : 5 ; Dan. 8:3; Matt. 9 : 36 ; Luke 15 : 4 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 25. John 10 : 3. » Isa. 40 : 1 1. 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 109 

were also selected. 1 In this connection some titles of our Lord as the 
great sacrifice will be recalled, he being styled "the Lamb of God" 
and " the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world." 2 The rich 
milk of sheep was a favorite article of diet. 3 Formerly too, it is 
likely, as at the present day, the trappings of horses, camels and 
asses, the saddle-bag and the water-bottle, were mostly made from 
the skins of sheep. Their horns were possibly used as vases for oil 
and other purposes. 4 Rams are not infrequently met with in the 
East having a number of horns, sometimes as many as eight. The 
representation in Daniel 7 : 7, accordingly, of a beast having ten 
horns, and in Revelation 5 : 6 of a lamb with seven horns, is by no 
means extraordinary. That the sheep-shearing was made a festival 
occasion has already been observed. 5 For a few days subsequent 
to their shearing the sheep were driven regularly into the water 
for cleansing, and possibly to harden them to the changes of the 
atmosphere. 6 

3. The Shepherd. — The life of an eastern shepherd is by no 
means so easy or so uneventful as might be supposed. When Jacob 
reproached his father-in-law for unfair dealing with him, he said 
of his own service, " Thus I was ; in the day the drought consumed 
me, and the frost by night ; and my sleep fled from mine eyes." 7 
David, also, makes record of some of his experiences at the time he 
kept his father's flocks. " When there came a lion, or a bear," he 
says, as though it was no uncommon occurrence, " and took a lamb 
out of the flock, I went out after him, and smote him, and delivered 
it out of his mouth." 8 Nor was the danger from wild beasts the 
only one to which the flock was exposed. It is highly suggestive, 
for example, of the state of society in the time of Saul that the out- 
lawed David and his men should demand some recognition from the 
rich Nabal, because they had not interfered with his property, as 
others in like circumstances most probably would have done. 9 Faith- 
fulness and success in such a calling could only be expected from one 
who had a personal concern in the well-being of the flock. " The 
good shepherd layeth down his life for the sheep. He that is a hire- 
ling and not a shepherd, whose own the sheep are not, beholdeth the 
wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep, and fleeth." 10 It is the custom 
now in the East for the owner of a flock, if he cannot care for it 
himself, to employ some one who will assume a pecuniary interest in 

i Ex. 29 : 38 ; Lev. 9:3; 12 : 6 ; 22 : 27 ; Num. 28 : 9. 2 j h n 1 : 29, 36 ; Rev. 13 : 8 ; 22 : 1, 3. 

3 Deut. 32 : 14 ; Isa. 7 : 21, 22. 4 j os h. 6:4; 1 Sam. 16 : 1. 5 Gen. 38 : 12 ; 1 Sam. 25 : 4 ; 2 
Sam. 13:23. 6 Cant. 4 : 2. 7 Gen. 31 •. 40. 8 i Sam. 17 : 34, 35 ; cf. Amos 3 : 12. 9 1 Sam. 
25:7. io John 10:11,12. 



110 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

it, requiring from him only a certain yearly income. It was such a 
bargain that Laban made with Jacob. 1 

For sustenance the shepherd ordinarily depends on his flock and on 
what he can obtain from the country where he may happen to be. 2 
Members of his family, however, occasionally visit him with provis- 
ions, as Joseph visited his brethren in Dothan. 3 The modern shep- 
herd always carries a knife in his belt, and not infrequently a pistol. 
These weapons are in addition to a heavy cudgel, which seldom fails 
in a sheep-master's outfit. The so-called " crook" is a staff of a dif- 
ferent kind, bent at one end into a semi-circle form for convenience in 
controlling the flock. 4 David, in his shepherd-life, carried a "scrip," 
that is, a kind of bag or wallet, and found use also for a sling. 5 Both 
these articles are still found among eastern shepherds. The former 
is commonly made of an entire skin of a sheep or lamb — the wool 
having been removed — and is carried by straps passing over the 
shoulders. Shepherds, moreover, ancient aud modern, have been 
accustomed to while away lonely hours with the music of some 
simple instrument like the flute or flageolet. 6 This fact has given 
rise to the name " pastoral," which is applied to a certain kind of 
poetical composition, and to " pastorale," a peculiar style of music. 

The ordinary duties of the shepherd consisted in leading out the 
flock to pasture, actually going before them, as is noted in the gos- 
pel ; watching them while feeding, generally, it would seem, with 
the help of a dog ; supplying them with water ; restoring the stray- 
ing ones, and bringing them all safely back to the fold at night. 7 
To find out whether any were missing he made them pass under a 
rod as they entered the fold, indicating the presence of each one by 
an inclination of the hand. It is to this custom that reference is 
made in the prophecy of Ezekiel, where Jehovah tenderly says of 
Israel, "I will cause you to pass under the rod, and I will bring you 
into the bond of the covenant; and I will purge out from among you 
the rebels, and them that transgress against me." 8 

4. The Fold, etc. — The fold varied in construction according to 
circumstances. Sometimes it was a simple inclosure, surrounded, for 
its better protection, by a wall of stone, which was itself surmounted 
by thorn bushes. At other times, probably, it was only a palisade 
of sticks interlaced with such bushes. The whole arrangement was 
naturally one of extreme simplicity, since the flock remained but a 

1 Gen. 31:39. 2 Amos 7 : 14; cf. Luke 15: 16. 3 Gen. 37: 13. * Ps.23: 4; Micah 7 : 14; 
Zeeh. 11:7. 5 1 Sam. 17 : 40 ; cf. Matt. 10 : 10. 6 Gen. 4 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 16 : 18 ; Job 21 : 12. 

7 Gen. 29 : 7 ; Job 30 : 1 ; Ps. 23 : 2 ; Luke 15 : 4 ; John 10 : 4. « Ezek. 20 : 87 ; cf. Lev. 27 : 32; 
Jer. 33 : 13. 




PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. Ill 

little while in any one place. Before the door — now generally con- 
sisting of a few sticks laid across the entrance — watched the shepherd 
and his dog. Where there were several shepherds they took turns 
in watching. 1 Towers for observation and defence were also used by 
sheep-masters in the ancient 
times. Traces of the custom 
still survive in certain proper 
names occurring in the Old 
Testament, as the " tower of 
Eder," that is, tower of the 
flock. Places of this sort were 
built by the kings Uzziah and 
Jothan. 2 

, _ Eastern Sheepfold. 

5. I he metaphorical use of 

the shepherd's calling is very common in the Bible. Princes, proph- 
ets and distinguished teachers are styled shepherds, 3 and, in some 
instances, Jehovah himself. He is described, for example, in one 
place as leading his people " like a flock, by the hand of Moses and 
Aaron." 4 It was a specially favorite image with our Lord. As 
already observed, he named himself the "good Shepherd;" 5 aud 
after the resurrection, in his solemn charge to the restored Peter, he 
recurs to the same thought, bidding him feed his lambs, tend and 
feed his sheep. 6 So, too, it is said concerning the people of God in 
heaven, that " the Lamb which is in the midst of the throne shall be 
their shepherd, and shall guide them unto fountains of waters of 
life." 7 

6. Goats. — The Bible everywhere makes a clear distinction be- 
tween sheep and goats. The latter as well as the former were numer- 
ously reared in the East in ancient times. There are seven different 
words in the Hebrew Scriptures used to designate the goat. The 
he-goat and wild goat are especially distinguished in this respect, 
each name putting emphasis upon some peculiarity of the animal. 
Goats are generally pastured in different flocks, and have a separate 
fold, from the sheep ; accordingly, their formal division from one 
another, when they become mixed, is no uncommon affair. 8 It is the 
young of goats that are most frequently mentioned in the biblical 
books as furnishing food for special entertainments. 9 A kid cooked 
with milk seems to have been looked upon as a special delicacy, since 

i Luke 2 : 8 (margin). 2 Gen. 35 : 21 ; 2 Chron. 26 : 10 ; 27 : 4 ; Micah 4:8. 3 Eccles. 12 : 
11 ; Isa. 44 : 28 ; Zech. 11 : 5. * Ps. 77 : 20. 5 j hn 10:11. 6 j hn 21 : 15, 17. » Rev. 
7 : 17. 8 Matt. 25 : 32. 9 Gen. 27 : 9, 16 ; 38 : 17 ; Judg. 15 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 16 : 20 ; Luke 15 : 29. 



112 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

the Mosaic laws contain three distinct prohibitions against the use 
of the milk of the dam for this purpose. 1 The milk of the goat was 
more commonly used for food than that of any other animal ; and 
its black hair was manufactured into a variety of articles, notably 
tent-cloth and the coarser kinds of garments. 2 

7. Cattle. — Among domestic animals mentioned in the Scriptures, 
neat cattle were held in scarcely less esteem than sheep and goats. 
They have always been the chief assistants of man in the pursuits 
of agriculture. It is significant as showing the high value that was 
put upon them everywhere that divine honors were paid in Egypt to 
Apis, their representative, and that it was with the greatest difficulty 
that the Israelites could be kept from imitating their more cultivated 
neighbors in this respect. 3 Figures of the ox are found on the most 
ancient monuments, and it was probably among the earliest animals 
domesticated. Its image was also stamped on the most ancient coins. 
Before the invention of money, cattle were made the medium of ex- 
change in commercial transactions. In some parts of the world this 
is still the case, the daughter of a south African father being valued 
by him, for purposes of marriage, at so many head of cattle. 

8. A principal Hebrew term for the ox and cow is one based on 
their ordinary employment, which was the breaking up of the soil 
preparatory to tillage. There is a peculiar law in Deuteronomy 
forbidding the yoking together of these animals with the ass for such 
a purpose.* It is in strict harmony, however, with other laws of the 
Pentateuch. 5 The inequality of strength and contrariety of temper 
would not only stand in the way of the best work, but would entail 
an unnecessary hardship upon the animals themselves. In addition 
to breaking up the land, cows and oxen were employed, as already 
intimated, to tread out the grain, to draw together in carts and 
wagons, carry burdens on their backs, and serve in a variety of other 
capacities. Cows also supplied milk and butter, and, to a limited 
extent, their flesh, as well as that of oxen, was consumed as food. 6 
As a rule, cattle are smaller in the East than with us ; but there is 
reason to suppose that this was not so uniformly the case in early 
times, especially since sufficient causes exist for their deterioration. 7 

9. There is a species of buffalo now extensively employed in the 
East for the same purposes as the ox. It is a more powerful, but a 
far less tractable, animal ; and while resembling the American buf- 

i Ex. 23 : 19 ; 34 : 26 ; Deut. 14 : 21. 2 Ex. 26 : 7 ; 35 : 26 ; 1 Ram. 19 : 13, 16 ; Cant. 1 : 5. 3 Ex. 
32 : 8 ; 1 Kin K s 12 : 28, 29. 4 Deut. 22 : 10. 6 Ex. 23 : 12 ; Deut. 22 : 1, 4 ; 25 : 4. 6 Num. 

7:3; Deut. 32:14; 1 Sam. 6:7; 2 Sam. 6:6; 1 Kimis 1:9; 4:28; Isa. 7:22; Hos. 10:11; 1 
Cor. 9:9; 1 Tim. 5:18. M Kings 4 : 23 ; Ps. 22 : 12 ; Prov. 14:1; Ezek, 39 : 18. 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 113 

falo in general appearance, its habits are peculiarly its own. It is 
exceedingly fond, for example, of swampy places, and will lie con- 
tentedly for hours in the water and mud. The animal was intro- 
duced into western Asia from India considerably after the Christian 
era, and the only reason for mentioning it here is to distinguish it 
from the wild ox of the Bible, improperly represented as a "unicorn" 
in the Authorized Version. The wild ox was of a very different 
temperament from the modern buffalo of the East. " Will the wild- 
ox be content to serve thee ? Or will he abide by thy crib ? Canst 
thou bind the wild-ox with his band in the furrow ? Or will he 
harrow the valleys after thee ?" * 

10. The Horse. — Other domestic animals of the Bible which 
should have brief notice are the horse, the camel, the mule and the 
ass. The dog receives little attention, being a despised animal and 
less thoroughly domesticated than with us. 2 Still, as we have seen, 
it was made useful by the shepherd, and in the later times, as we 
learn from the case of Tobias, was sometimes looked upon as a com- 
panion. 3 Hens are not mentioned at all in the Old Testament, 
although it can scarcely be doubted that, at all periods, they were 
common with the Hebrews, as w^e know they were with their neigh- 
bors the Egyptians. 4 Moreover, from a single passage only are Ave 
able to infer directly that bees were domesticated in Palestine, not- 
withstanding it was a land "flowing with milk and honey." 5 The 
most of the honey was probably wild. 

11. The centre from which horses seem to have been distributed 
throughout the East was the table-lands of central Asia. They still 
run wild there in great numbers. Among the possessions which 
Abraham brought back from Egypt horses are not named, and it is 
likely that they were not known there at that time. 6 The first in- 
dication of them on the monuments appears during the eighteenth 
dynasty, that is, about the time of Jacob's pilgrimage thither. Until 
the period of David they were never used in war by the Israelites. 
Afterwards the custom became common, Solomon importing them 
for himself and neighboring kings from Egypt. 7 A couple of cen- 
turies later we have evidence of their employment, to a limited ex- 
tent, in agriculture. 8 No class among the Hebrews seems to have 
taken kindly to horseback riding for its own sake. The food of 
horses, besides grass, was cut straw, barley, and probably meal made 

i Job 39 : 9, 10 ; cf. Num. 23 : 22 ; 24 : 8 ; Ps. 22 : 21 ; Isa. 34 : 7. 2 Ex. 22 : 31 ; Deut. 23 : 18 ; 

1 Kings 14 : 11 ; 16 : 4 ; 21 : 19 ; 2 Kings 9 : 30. 3 Tobit 5 : 10 ; 11:4; cf. Matt. 15 : 27. * Job 
6:6; Matt. 23 : 37 ; 26 : 34 , Mark 14 : 30. 5 i sa . 7 : 18. 6 Gen. 12 : 16. "1 Kings 10 : 29. 
8 Isa. 28 : 28. 



114 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

from beans and the stones of dates. 1 They were not shod, nor gener- 
ally provided with saddles when ridden. 

We find references in the Bible to the whip, bridle and bit, and 
to some peculiar trappings worn by chariot horses. 2 In Assyria it 
was customary for women in the earliest times to ride astride the 
animal, as they now do in the Orient as well as in some other parts 
of the world. But this practice seems not to have been universal, 
since Etruscan vases dating back to a period before the foundation 
of Rome represent them as riding in the manner common with us. 
The metaphorical use of the peculiarities of the horse in the Bible 
is relatively limited. 3 In heathen religions, especially the Persian, 
horses of a white color were dedicated to the sun. 4 This fact may 
have been of influence, as some suppose, in the representation which 
we find in the Revelation where Christ is made to ride on a horse 
of this color, as are also the " armies which are in heaven " that 
follow him. 5 But it is more likely that the circumstance which lies 
at the basis of both these facts is that white is a natural symbol of 
light and purity. That the prophet Zechariah uses symbolically the 
colors of the horses of which he speaks is extremely doubtful. 6 

12. The Camel. — The variety of camel found in Palestine and 
Syria now, as well as in the times of the Bible, is that having one 
hump on its back — the dromedary or Arabian camel, so called in 
distinction from the Bactrian, which has two humps and belongs to 
another region of the earth. Though the camel is sometimes found 
in a wild state in the interior of Asia, it is chiefly known in history 
as the servant of man. It is docile, can be easily led by a halter 
and be made to lie down to receive its burden ; but of all the 
domesticated animals it perhaps submits the least graciously of any 
to the services imposed upon it. On an emergency and for short 
stages it will carry a load of a thousand pounds or more, and with- 
out hardship will make a continuous journey of thirty miles a day. 
Although the camel is mentioned as among the possessions of the 
relatively-opulent patriarchs, 7 w T ith this exception we do not find it 
in any considerable numbers elsewhere among the Hebrews pre- 
vious to the exile save in the case of David ; 8 and for his camels 
David provided an Ishmaelite keeper. The Hebrews, in fact, in 
their mountainous country had comparatively little use for such 
an animal as the camel, especially as long as they devoted them- 

i 1 Kings 4 : 28. 22 Kings 19 : 28 ; Ps. 32 : 9 ; Prov. 26 : 3 ; Isa. 30 : 28 ; Zech. 10:3; 14 : 20 ; 
James 3:3. 3 i sa . 63 : 13 ; Amos 6 : 12 ; Wisd. 19:9. * 2 Kings 23 : 11. » Rev. 6 : 2, 4, 

5,8; 19:11,14. 6 Zech. 1 : 8 ; 6:2,3. * Gen. 12: 16; 24: 10; 30: 43; 31:17,34; 32:7; Job 
1 : 3 ; 42 : 12. 8 1 Chron. 27 : 30. 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 



115 



selves chiefly to the pursuits of agriculture. We accordingly find 
it mentioned throughout the Old Testament mostly in connection 
with neighboring peoples, particularly those given to trade. 1 

13. The camel was used both for riding and as a pack animal. 
That it was ever har- 
nessed into a chariot 
is improbable. The 
only passage of the 
English Bible favor- 
ing such a supposition 
has been properly 
changed by the revis- 
ers, so that Ave read, 
instead of' "chariot 
of camels," " troop 
of camels." 2 Camel's 
milk is considered in 
the East very nutri- 
tious ; although there 
is no positive evidence 
that the Israelites 
were accustomed to 
drink it. 3 Its flesh was 
forbidden to them. 4 The skin was used in the manufacture of sandals, 
water-bottles and other similar articles. Of its hair, which regularly 
falls out in the spring, a rough kind of cloth was manufactured, suit- 
able for the covering of tents and the cheapest clothing. 5 The pro- 
cess of making a finer material from it, however, was not unknown to 
the ancients. The saddle used on the camel for riding was much the 
same as that employed for loading it. It generally consisted of a 
wooden frame, under and within which cushions were placed. The 
frame was sometimes covered over in the form of a palanquin. It 
is not unusual to see now, as in ancient times, a chain with various 
pendants suspended from the neck of the camel when in service. 6 

The animal known as becer, and mentioned in two passages of the 
Bible, seems to have been only a younger, and hence a stronger 
and fleeter, kind of camel. 7 Respecting the Mrkaroth of Isaiah 
66 : 20, rendered in the Revised Version " swift beasts " (marg., 




Eastern Baetrian Camel. 



iGen. 37:25; 1 Sam. 15:3; 27:9; 30:17; 1 Kings 10:2; 2 Kings8:9; Isa. 60:6; Jer. 49 : 
29, H2. 2 i sa . 21 ; 7. 3 Gen. 32 : 15. * Lev. 11 : 4. & Matt. 3:4. 6 j U( jg. 8 : 26. i Isa, 
60 : 6 ; Jer. 2 : 23. 



116 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

dromedaries), there is a differeDce of opinion, some preferring the 
rendering " paniers " or " baskets," that is, such as were borne on 
the backs of camels. But modern usage among the Bedouins of 
the desert rather justifies the other rendering, the root of the word 
referring to the swinging gait of the animal when in rapid motion. 
The expressions used by our Lord respecting the camel were prob- 
ably proverbial for anything conceived to be naturally impossible. 1 

14. The Mule. — The mule is not mentioned in the Bible pre- 
vious to the time of the kings. One of the more radical changes 
made in the recent revision of the Old Testament is that found in 
Genesis 36 : 24, where the word " mules" has been altered to " hot 
springs." A law of Leviticus prohibited the rearing of animals 
which were the product of the union of two diverse species, and 
there is no evidence that the Israelites ever transgressed it. 2 After 
the establishment of the kingdom, however, mules, like horses, were 
somewhat numerous. David had a special one on which he was 
accustomed to ride. 3 Absalom was endeavoring tQ escape on one 
of these animals when he lost his life. 4 It is stated that mules were 
among the things rendered in yearly tribute to Solomon by the 
neighboring peoples. 5 They were used as pack animals, but far less 
generally than for riding. 6 On their return from the Babylonian 
captivity the Israelites brought back two hundred and forty-five 
mules, as against seven hundred and thirty-six horses and six thou- 
sand seven hundred and twenty asses. 7 At the present time in the 
East this animal has a higher pecuniary value than the horse, and 
largely outnumbers it, as well as the ass, in the uses of commerce. 
This fact might be inferred from the word " muleteer," which is 
applied to the man who has charge of the animals of all sorts 
making up a caravan. 

15. The Ass. — One of the best-known and most useful animals 
of the Bible was the ass. It was very early domesticated, although 
at all periods, even down to the present, it has existed in a wild 
state. The monuments of Assyria represent the hunting of this 
animal as one of the favorite sports of royalty. In speed and 
endurance no horse could approach it. Its flesh, though forbidden 
to the Hebrews, was much prized as food. 8 The straits to which 
the inhabitants of Samaria were once reduced during a siege may 
be inferred from the fact that an ass's head sold for eighty shekels. 9 

i Matt. 19 -.24; 23: 24. 2 l ov . 19 : 19. » 1 Kings 1 : 33,38, 44. * 2 Sam. 18:9. 6 1 Kings 
10 : 25 ; 2 Chron. 9 : 24. 6 2 Kings 5 : 17. * Ezra 2 : G6 ; Neh. 7 : 68. » Lev. 11:1-8; Dent. 
14 : 3-8. • 2 Kings 6 : 25. 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 



117 



Throughout the history of the covenant people the ass, among their 
domestic animals, always largely outnumbered the horse and the 
mule. It is mentioned several times in the history of the patri- 
archs, and the remarkable journey of the prophet Balaam on the 
back of one occurred before the Israelites settled in Palestine. 1 In 
the book of Job, driving away the ass of the fatherless is noted as 
an act of excessive oppression, proving both their great number and 
their relatively 
small value at 
that period. 2 Da- 
vid's asses were 
so numerous that 
he had a special 
keeper for them; 3 
and in the time 
of our Lord the 
ox and ass were 
the most famil- 
iar and the most 
widely- inclusive 
description of a 
man's posses- 
sions in domes- 
tic animals.* 

The ass of east- 
ern countries has generally a brighter color and more graceful 
figure than that of the Occident. Previous to the tenth century 
B.C. it was the animal most used by the Hebrews for riding and 
as a pack animal. At about that time the mule came largely 
into use for the former purpose, especially on the part of the rich. 
From the time of Solomon the horse was the animal chiefly rid- 
den, particularly in battle, and the ass came to be looked upon, in 
distinction from it, as the animal for periods and scenes of peace. 
This serves to account for the language of the prophet concern- 
ing the Messiah : " Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion ; shout, O 
daughter of Jerusalem : behold, thy king cometh unto thee : he is 
just, and having salvation ; lowly, and riding upon an ass, even 
upon a colt the foal of an ass." 5 The female, on account of its softer 
step, was especially prized for riding, as well as for its nutritious 




Eastern Wild Ass. {After J. G. Wood.) 



i Gen. 12 : 16 ; 30 : 43 ; Num. 22. 2 Jo b 24 : 3 ; cf. 1 Sam. 12 : 3. 
13 : 15 ; 14 : 5. 5 Zech. 9:9; John 12 : 15. 



1 Chron. 27 : 30. * Luke 



118 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

milk. Women as well as men were accustomed to ride the ass. A 
driver was sometimes found necessary on such occasions. A journey 
made by Moses in this way, his wife and sons being mounted on the 
animal while he walked at its side, seems to be the only historical 
foundation for the design of the familiar picture of the flight of 
Joseph and Mary into Egypt with the child Jesus. 1 

16. The saddle, several times spoken of in connection with the 
ass, was probably no more than a simple covering of skin or cloth, 
for convenience in riding or for the protection of the animal. 2 The 
ass was also used as a draught animal to some extent. In the ear- 
liest times it was attached to the plough ; in those of the New Tes- 
tament it was made to work in the larger mills for grinding grain. 3 
The docility and usefulness of the ass appear to have protected it 
in former times from the opprobrium so widely attaching to it in our 
own day. The name " Hamor," that is, ass, was that of a titled 
family of Shechem previous to Jacob's going thither. 4 And Homer 
seeks to do honor to Ajax by comparing him with the animal which 
is now so much the object of ridicule. 5 

17. Agriculture in General. — As already noted, the Bible 
represents agriculture as one of the earliest pursuits of man. 6 The 
patriarchs, however, seem to have engaged in it only occasionally ; 
that is, when circumstances required it. It is said, for example, of 
Isaac that during the prevalence of a famine in Palestine he culti- 
vated land in the vicinity of Gerar, which produced a hundredfold. 7 
Joseph's dream of the sheaves suggests an acquaintance on the part 
of his family likewise with the business of sowing and reaping. 8 
During the sojourn in Egypt the Hebrews doubtless became prac- 
tically familiar with the highly-developed processes of agriculture 
there known. Moses makes an interesting allusion in Deuteronomy 
to a method of gardening which his own countrymen carried on 
there. 9 On settling in Canaan the major part of the people must 
have become agriculturists. The laws of the Pentateuch cer- 
tainly recognize land as the principal possession of the Hebrews, and 
its cultivation as their chief business. 

According to these laws every family was to have its own piece 
of ground. It could not be alienated, except for limited periods. 
Such family estates were carefully surveyed ; and it was regarded as 
one of the most flagrant of crimes to remove a neighbor's landmark. 10 

i Ex. 4 : 20 ; Matt. 2 : 13-15. 2 Gen. 22 : 3 ; Num. 22 : 21 ; 1 Kings 13 : 13 ; 2 Kings 4 : 24. 
3 Deut. 22 : 10 ; Isa. 30 : 24; 32 : 20 ; Matt. 18 : <i (margin) ; Luke 17 : 2. « Gen. 33 : 19 ; cf. 49 : 
14. & II. 11 : 557. 6 Gen. 3 : 17 ; 4 : 2 ; 5 : 29 ; 9 : 20. * Gen. 2(5 : 12. « Gen. 37 : 7. » Deut. 
11 : 10. i° Deut. ID : 14 ; 27 : 17 ; Job 24 : 2 ; Prov. 22 : 28 ; 23 : 10 ; Hos. 5 : 10. 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 119 

Estates were divided into so many yokes ("acres"), that is, portions 
such as a yoke of oxen could plough in a single day. 1 The value put 
upon land was according to its yield in grain. 2 Labor in the fields 
was not thought beneath the dignity of any, although day-laborers 
as a class, and the calling of the overseer, were not unknown. 3 Some 
of the kings gave particular encouragement to agriculture. 4 Irri- 
gation was practiced in Palestine, though not carried to the same 
extent as in Egypt. The chief dependence for moisture was on the 
dew and the drenching rains of the rainy season. There are not less 
than eight synonyms for rain in the Hebrew language. The climate 
of Palestine has undoubtedly changed somewhat in more modern 
times, and many of the earlier methods of cultivating the soil, like 
terracing the hills, have been abandoned. It is accordingly unsafe 
to draw too confident conclusions concerning its lack of fertility from 
what it now produces. The ground was fertilized by the ashes of 
burnt straw and stubble, the chaff left after threshing and the direct 
application of dung. 5 

18. The Sabbatic Year. — A special circumstance that con- 
tributed to heighten the natural fertility of the soil was the custom 
enjoined on the Israelites of letting it lie fallow every seventh year. 
Not only was the seventh day and the seventh month to be observed, 
but also the seventh or so-called " sabbatic" year. This law is found 
in three different books of the Pentateuch. 6 Undoubtedly its differ- 
ent forms were meant to be mutually supplementary. That of Ex- 
odus is incomplete, and would be scarcely intelligible without that 
of Leviticus. To say, however, with some, that the law in Exodus 
fails to recognize any one period of rest for land and people at once, 
is to overlook the context. The law of the Sabbath as obligatory 
on all is made the norm of the new regulation. And while rest on 
the seventh year is not positively enjoined, it is clearly meant to be 
inferred from the command to sow the fields six years. The form in 
Deuteronomy, on the other hand, bears to that of Leviticus the re- 
lation of a by-law, providing for a special case arising from carrying 
out the statute. 

The law as a whole then required that on each seventh year the 
land should enjoy a sabbath. It was not to be tilled. What grew 
spontaneously was to be not alone for the owner, but, on equal terms, 
for the poor, for strangers and for cattle ; that is, the rights of the 

i 1 Sam. 14 : 14. 2 Lev. 27 : 16. 3 Lev. 19 : 13 ; Ruth 2 : 5 ; 1 Sara. 11 : 5 ; 1 Kings 19 : 19 ; 
Matt. 20 : 1 ; 1 Cor. 3:9. * 1 Chron. 27 : 26 ; 2 Chron. 26 : 10. 5 Ex. 15 : 7; 2 Kings 9 : 37 ; 

Ps. 83 : 10 ; Isa. 5 : 24 ; Jer. 8 : 2 ; 9 : 22 ; 16 : 4. 6 Ex. 23 : 10-12; Lev. 25 : 1-7 ; Deut. 15 : 1-11. 



120 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



owner were for the time kept in abeyance. Such a law has been 
pronounced quite impracticable by some critics. But aside from 
the economic advantage of a rest of this kind for the land, there was 
nothing to hinder the owner from laying aside from previous crops 
a sufficiency to maintain him and his family during the "sabbatic" 
year. The code indeed makes express provision for his doing so. 1 

To what extent this law was observed in post-Mosaic times it is 
not possible with certainty to say. That it was pretty generally 
neglected for a long period is extremely probable. This might be 
inferred from a passage in the book of Chronicles, where the exile 
in Babylon is represented as a punishment for the failure to observe 
it. 2 A reference to the form of the law in Deuteronomy, and pos- 
sibly more, occurs in Nehemiah 10 : 31 ; and the fact that it was 

customary to reckon years in cycles of 
seven is established by Daniel 9 : 24. 
After the close of the canon of the Old 
Testament, we learn from the first book 
of Maccabees that the sabbatic year was 
kept ; 3 and according to Josephus, Julius 
Caesar took accouut of it in levying trib- 
ute on the Jews. 4 A strong incidental 
support to the genuineness of the law as 
a product of the Mosaic period is found 
in the Deuteronomic statute of the tithe 
for the third year. It seems to presup- 
pose the institution of the sabbatic year. 
If it did not, there would be needful a 
twofold system of indicating the periodic 
recurrence of the year of release and 
that of the tithe. 5 On the supposition, 
however, of the existence of this institu- 
tion, the two nicely harmonize in the cycle of seven years, the special 
tithe falling on the third and sixth, while there was none on the 
seventh, year. 6 

19. Grains of Palestine. — The grains which have been the most 
widely cultivated at all times in Palestine are w r heat and barley. In 
connection with these spelt and millet, or the so-called "German 
wheat," are noticed in a few passages. 7 Indian corn, rye and oats 
are not spoken of in the Hebrew Bible. Fitches and cummin, the 




Egyptian Wheat. 



i Lev. 25 : 20-22. 
5 Deut. 14 : 28, 29. 



2 2 Chron. 36 : 20, 21. 3 i Mace. 6 : 20, 49, 53. 4 Josephus, Anliq. 14, 10 : 6. 
" Deut. 15 : 1-11. i Ex. 9 : 32 ; Isa. 28 : 25 ; Ezek. 4 : 9. 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 121 

former being simply a variety of the latter, are mentioned together 
in Isaiah, and the process described by which the grain was separated 
from its husk. 1 Of plants that produced pods the most common in 
the early times were beans and lentils. The products of the land 
which Jacob sent down to Egypt as a present to its viceroy are not, 
it is likely, a fair representation of their variety. They were neces- 
sarily limited by the dearth which had prevailed as well as by the 
requirements of such a journey. 2 

20. The Seasons. — The dependence of the husbandman on the 
natural order of the seasons and the productive forces of nature or- 
dained by God is well set forth by the prophet Isaiah. 3 The " early 
rain" usually began to fall in the latter part of Tishri (September- 
October), or soon after the close of the fruit-harvest. The " latter 
rain" was due just before the beginning of the barley-harvest, in 
Nisan (March- April). The six months intervening between Tishri 
and Msan were mostly devoted to the cultivation of the soil ; those 
from Nisan to Tishri to the gathering of the crops. The expressions 
" early rain " and " latter rain," although so frequent in the Scrip- 
tures, should not be understood as necessarily meaning that there 
were only two periods wdien rain fell. There is reason to suppose, 
on the contrary, that formerly, as now, there was often little distinc- 
tion between them, the rainy season being, for the most part, un- 
broken, except that, perhaps, a larger amount of rain fell near its 
beginning and near its end. 

21. The Plough. — From what we learn of the plough of the 
ancient Hebrews we judge that it 

had the general form of the modern ^^ 

plough, but was of rude construe- ^L 

tion. The share was of iron and Jjl 

could be removed for sharpening. 4 « ^^^^^^\, 

The frame was of wood and fur- |l ^j^^^^ ^^a 

nished with a handle by means of || ^^^^ ^ 

which the plough w r as guided. 5 Judg- 0h^&=^^ 
ing from the modern Syrian plough, Arab Plough, 

there were also a pole and cross-bar 

for attaching the animals that drew T it. It has been supposed from 
the alleged circumstance that different names are given it in the 
Hebrew that, even at an early period, there was more than one 
style of plough in use. But it is uncertain whether by the He- 
brew word so rendered in a few closely-related passages the plough 

ilsa. 28:27. 2 Gen. 43:11. 3 i sa . 28 : 24-29. * 1 Sam. 13:20. 5 Luke 9 : 62. 



122 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 




Syrian Yoke. 

a, b, timber of the yoke ; c, d, the bows ; e, e, pegs 
between which, at g, the end of the shaft comes, the 
shaft itself having been run through the rope between 
/ and the cross-piece of wood h i. 



is meant or some other agricultural tool. 1 The most probable con- 
clusion is that, the frame of the plough remaining much the same, 
there were different styles of the share to which different names were 
applied ; or that the alternative word referred to a knife which was 
attached to the plough in front of the share. The plough was 
ordinarily drawn by two oxen, cows or asses ; never, among the 

Hebrews, by one of the last-named 
animals and one of the former. 2 
They were connected with the plough 
by means of a yoke. The Egyptian 
monuments represent this as fast- 
ened to the head of the animal near 
the horns; but it is not the common 
method in modern Syria. The out- 
fit of the ploughman included a 
goad. It consisted of a long heavy 
stick made sharp at one end or 
armed with an iron point. How formidable a weapon it could be in 
a strong hand we learn from the incident of Shamgar, recorded in 
the book of the Judges, who slew six hundred Philistines with one 
of them. 3 

22. Preparation of the Soil. — Unbroken land, having first 
been cleared of stones and bushes, was ploughed more than once.* 
According to Isaiah 37 : 30, it was not until the third year after the 
withdrawal of the Assyrians from Palestine that the Israelites were 
able to sow and reap. It would appear that sometimes the sowing 
preceded the ploughing, and 
that the latter might begin 
before the opening of the 
rainy season ; but ordinarily 
the sowing immediately suc- 
ceeded the early rain. 5 Where 
the ground was moist the 
seed was sometimes covered 
by means of the trampling of 
cattle. 6 The use of the harrow 
—which was probably a strong board armed in some way for the pur- 
pose, or a cluster of thorn bushes— is established by several passages. 7 




Eastern Plough, Yoke and Goad. 

Bowl for the seed ; b, e, pipe for dropping seed, as a drill. 
2, Goad. 8, Square yoke. 



1 Isa. 2:4; Joel 3:10; Micah 4:3. 2 Deut. 25 
14 ; Amos 6 : 12. 3 Judg. 3 : 31 ; sec Eccles. 12 : 
5:2; 32 : 20 ; Jer. 4:3; Hos. 10 : 12. 
24; Hos. 10:11. 



10 ; 1 Sam. 11:7; 1 Kings 19 : 19 : Job 1 : 

I ; Acts 9 : 5 (Autborizod Version). 4 fsa. 

& Matt. 13 : 4. « Isa. 32 : 20. 7 Job 39 : 10 ; Isa. 88 : 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 123 

From the Egyptian monuments we learn that it was the custom there 
for a person to follow the ploughman and knock the clods and fur- 
rows to pieces by means of a heavy wooden instrument. The seed 
was generally sown broadcast with the hand. A more careful sowing 
in drills was practiced by those seeking a larger crop. 1 There was 
a regular order observed in the sowing, beginning with the more 
hardy products and ending with barley and wheat. 

23. Owing to a prohibition of the Pentateuch against sowing the 
same field with two kinds of seeds under the penalty of the confisca- 
tion of the products to the sanctuary, the Hebrews were scrupulous 
to mark exactly the borders of their fields. 2 The rabbins of a later 
day invented the most painful regulations for avoiding the juxtapo- 
sition of different kinds of products in the field. On their approach- 
ing ripeness the field fruits were carefully watched, although it was 
the privilege of any chance comer to help himself to what he re- 
quired to supply immediate needs. 3 

The beginning of the harvest was signalized by bringing a sheaf 
of new grain — Josephus informs us that it was barley 4 — into the 
sanctuary and waving it before the Lord. 5 The Scriptures intimate 
that this ceremony took place on the day following the passover Sab- 
bath — that is, the sixteenth of Nisan. It was intended as an acknowl- 
edgment that the bounty of the earth was dependent on the divine 
favor. Seven weeks from this date, at the feast of pentecost, a sim- 
ilar ceremony took place, two loaves of bread, made of the new flour, 
being waved before the Lord as the passover sheaf had been. 6 Be- 
tween these two periods the grain harvest continued, the time re- 
quired being lengthened by the fact that the threshing of the grain 
was considered a part of its harvesting. 

24. Harvesting. — Grain in Palestine was generally cut with the 
sickle, as w r as also the case in Egypt. 7 Pulling it up by the roots 
was a rarer practice, the preference being to leave much of the stalk 
still standing. The prophet Isaiah, describing the judgments which 
should fall on Israel, says : " And it shall be as when the harvest- 
man gathereth the standing corn, and his arm reapeth the ears ; yea, 
it shall be as when one gleaneth ears in the valley of Rephaim." 8 
After gathering as much as could be conveniently carried, the reaper 
left the grain in little piles behind him on the field. This was after- 
wards gathered up and bound into sheaves and the sheaves stacked 

i Isa. 28 : 25. 2 Lev. 19 : 19 ; Dent. 22 : 9. 3 D eu t. 23 : 25 ; Matt. 12:1. * Josephus, 

Antiq. 3, 10 : 5 ; Ruth 2 : 23 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 9. 5 Lev. 23 : 5, 6, 10-12. 6 Lev. 23 : 15, 17 ; Num. 

28:26. 7 Deut. 16:9; Jer. 50:16; Joel 3:13. » Isa. 17 : 5 ; cf. Ps. 129 : 7. 



124 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

together. 1 In a number of passages of Scripture we are introduced 
to the busy scenes of the harvest-field, and even shown how the har- 
vesters working under a burning eastern sky were accustomed to 
refresh themselves. The joy of harvest is proverbial in the Bible ; 
and the benign features of the Mosaic laws are conspicuous in the 
reiterated injunction that at such times the needy were not to be for- 
gotten. 2 Vineyards and olive-yards were included in the benevolent 
intent of the statute. Fields and fruit-orchards were not to be 
gleaned by their owners, or the corners of the former even reaped. 
This was to be the portion of the poor and the stranger, who also 
were thus to know the harvest joy. It will be recalled how liberally 
this ancient law w T as interpreted by her generous kinsman in favor 
of Ruth the Moabitess. 3 And it was no unmeaning compliment that 
Gideon paid to one of the tribes of Israel when he said, " Is not the 
gleaning of the grapes of Ephraim better than the vintage of Abi- 
ezer?" 4 

25. Threshing. — The threshing of the straw, following close upon 
the harvest, was carried on in the same field or in one adjacent, and 





Eastern Threshing Instrument Eastern Threshing Instrument 

(upper view). (side view). 

generally under the open sky. This was possible on account of the 
dry climate of Palestine at this season of the year. 5 An elevated 
spot was selected, that the wind might carry away the dust and lighter 
chaff. Sometimes, at least, the grain was borne to the threshing- 
floor in carts. 6 The place itself was simply a spot of ground made 
hard by beating or treading it. In area it was from fifty to a hun- 
dred feet in diameter. Often the same floor served the purpose for 
a long time, until, like that of Atad and that of Araunah, it became 
well known. 7 The heavier grain was sometimes beaten out with 
sticks, and in the case of fitches and cummin this was the ordinary 
process. 8 The method early adopted in threshing was to drive cat- 

l Gen. 37 : 7 ; .Tor. 9 : 22. 2 L C v. 19 : in ; 23 : 22 ; Deut. 24 : 19-22 ; Ps. 4 : 7 ; 126 : 5 ; Isa. 9 : 3. 
» Ruth 2 : 9, 15, 1(5. 4 j u & g , 8 : 2. M gam. 12 : 16, 17. e Amos 2 : 13. i Gen. 50 : 10; 

2 Sam. 24 : 1G. 8 Isa. 28 : 27. 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 



125 



tie over the straw, several being yoked together abreast. This was 
also customary in Egypt. 1 Later a threshing-sledge was made use 
of. It consisted of a frame with two or three revolving cylinders 
fitted into it. Each cylinder was armed with iron projections in the 
form of wheels, so arranged with respect to each other that the whole 
space under the machine would be covered. It was drawn by oxen 
or horses, and an elevated seat for the driver was placed in front of 
it. 2 A threshing-machine of a still ruder sort was sometimes found. 
Two or three planks, bent upward in front, were fastened side by 
side in a form corresponding to the modern stone-sledge. In the 
under side of the planks holes were bored and filled with sharp 
sticks and stones, by means of which the grain was forced out and 
the straw cut in pieces. 3 It was inevitable that in such processes the 
grain would be more or less injured. Threshing-machines seem also 
to have been sometimes used in those cruel days for the purpose of 
torturing enemies.* 

26. Winnowing.-— The process of winnowing followed imme- 
diately upon that of threshing. It was one that required both 
strength and skill. The instruments used for winnowing and spoken 
of in the Bible as 
the "shovel 
the " fan " are 
not clearly distin- 
guished from one 
another. 5 It seems 
likely, however, 
that the former 
was a kind of 
pitchfork with 
several tines, by 
means of which 
the straw 
flung into the air; 

the latter, aw r ooden shovel with a long handle. The winnowing was 
commonly done in the evening, when there was likely to be sufficient 
wind. 6 The wind might be too strong, so as to carry away the grain 
as well as the chaff. 7 Following the winnowing came the sifting, by 
which the grain was still further separated from dust and dirt. 8 It 




Eastern Winnowing-fans. 



i Hosea 10 : 11 ; Micah 4:12. 2 p rov . 20 : 26 ; Isa. 28 : 27. 
23 ; Isa. 41 : 15. * 2 Kings 13 : 7; Isa. 25 : 10 ; Amos 1 : 3. 

7 Jer. 4 : 11 ; 51 : 1, 2. 8 Amos v : 9 ; Matt, 3 : 12. 



3 2 Sam. 24 : 22; 1 Chron. 21 : 
5 Isa. 30 : 24. 6 R u th 3 : 2. 



126 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

was customary for some one to sleep near the grain at night, during 
the period of harvest, to protect it from marauders until it was safely 
stored in the granaries. 1 Both in ancient and modern times excava- 
tions in the earth, including dry cisterns, have been favorite places 
for the storage of grain. The chaff and straw remaining after thresh- 
ing and winnowing, as already remarked, were burnt for the enrich- 
ment of the soil. 2 

27. Grapes. — The gathering of the later fruits closed the harvests 
of the year. By far the most important of them were the grape 
and the olive. A vineyard in the East is generally surrounded with 
a ditch a few feet wide, the earth from which is thrown up on its 
inner side. Into this pile of earth posts are driven, and the entire 
space surrounded with a close fence of branches and twigs, or, if 
these are wanting, with walls of stone or dried mud. This is to pro- 
tect the fruit from foxes, jackals and other marauding animals. 3 The 
tow T er of the vineyard has already been described. The soil is spaded 
over rather than ploughed, and for this purpose companies of work- 
men are hired from the nearest market-place. 4 Trellises are not 
commonly used for vines ; accordingly they are kept closely pruned. 5 
Grapes which are to be converted into raisins are cured by a very 
simple process. The clusters are dipped in a strong lye and then 
allowed to dry in the sun. They are afterwards picked from their 
stems and packed away in bags, or, perhaps quite as frequently, they 
are left on the stem. Raisins form an important article of diet with 
eastern peoples. 6 

28. If wine or syrup is to be made, the grapes are carried directly 
from the vineyard to the wine-press, either that of the owner of the 
vineyard or of the professional wine-maker. The wine-press is an 
elevated tank of brick or wood, with a hole on one side near the 
bottom, from which the juice escapes into the vat. The tank being 
filled with grapes, men mount to its top by a ladder and, holding on 
to cords fastened to the roof or ceiling, tread out the grapes with 
their naked feet. 7 The monuments showing that this form of wine- 
press was common in ancient Egypt, it is fair to suppose that it was 
the one in general use among the Hebrews. The gathering of the 
vintage, in which all ages and classes engaged, was a time of great 
joyousness. 8 Moslems, to whom wine is forbidden, when they do not 
dry their grapes for raisins, or eat them while fresh, boil down their 

J Ruth 3 : 7. 2 Ps. 1 : 4 ; 35 : 5 ; Matt. 3:12. 8 p s . 80 : 8-13 ; Cant. 2:15; Tsa. 5 : 4-6 : Matt. 
21 : 33. 4 Matt. 20 : 1-5. & Ezek. 15 : 2-4 ; John 15 : 2-6. o 1 Sam. 25 : 13 ; 30 : 12 ; 2 Sam. 
16:1; IChron. 12:40. *Isa.68:2, 8. e Isa. 16:10. 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 



127 



r \\\\\\\\\\\W\\\\\ (///////////////////////// 



juice to the consistency of a syrup, known as dibs, or, mixing it with 
fine flour, make sun-dried cakes of it. When wine is made, the grape 
juice is poured into jars and allowed to ferment, or enclosed in bottles 
of skins. Such bottles are made from the whole skins of animals, gen- 
erally the goat. After the animal is killed and its feet and head re- 
moved, in order to preserve the skin as complete as possible the rest 
of the body is drawn out entire ; hence the unique form of these bottles, 
which is well known. Care is taken 
to put w T iue that is to be fermented 
into new skins, or such as are able 
to withstand the pressure required 
of them. 1 Vineyards are frequent- 
ly rented to persons who pay their 
rent in kind, the amount being 
generally one-half the yield. 2 

29. The Olive. — The olive 
grows wild in western Asia ; but 
when cultivated it is grafted. From 
Romans 11 : 17-24 it is not to 
be inferred that the wild olive is 
generally grafted upon the culti- 
vated stock, the apostle himself 
showing that this was reversing the 
natural process. Olive trees are planted as close together as they 
can conveniently stand, and the soil about them is kept loose. The 
olive is a long-lived tree, and sometimes an orchard of olives passes 
from one hand to another while the land remains with the same 
owner, or vice versa. It is noticeable that when Abram bought the 
field of Ephron, "the cave which was therein, and all the trees that 
were in the field, that were in all the border thereof round about, 
were made sure" to him. 3 The olive reaches about the height of the 
apple tree, and when in its prime is a beautiful specimen of vegeta- 
tion.* Its blossoms are white and easily scattered by the wind. 5 The 
fruit is well known in our markets. It is gathered not earlier than 
November. The finer portion is reserved for pickling ; oil is made 
from the rest. 

30. The olive-press is generally constructed of a platform of 
masonry, on which a large circular stone, hollowed out in the form 
of a pan, is placed. The olives to be ground are put in this recep- 




Egyptian Wine-press ( Wilkinson). 



i Matt. 9 : 17. 
6 Job 15 : 33. 



2 Matt. 21:33,34,41. 



Gen. 23 : 17. 4 p s , 128 : 3 ; Jer. 11 : 16 ; Hos. 14 : 6. 



128 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 




Syrian Olive-ruill. 



tacle. They are crushed by means of another stone of the shape and 
size of a large grindstone, set upright and moved about by means of 
a pole extending through its centre. The oil flows out through a 
hole in the side of the vat. The pulp, inclosed in bags or baskets, 

is afterwards subjected to still further 
pressure by the feet or otherwise, until 
all the oil has been removed. There 
is every reason to suppose that the 
ancient process was similar to the 
modern. 1 The oil is kept either in 
earthen jars or in bottles of skin. 

31. The cultivation of the apple, 
fig, pomegranate, mulberry and vari- 
ous species of nuts has already been 
referred to, and needs not to be more 
particularly described. The lotus is 
twice mentioned in the Bible. 2 Orig- 
inally the grape and the olive alone paid the tithe, and came under 
the law of the first fruits. 3 The Mosaic laws, however, contain an 
injunction concerning all trees bearing fruit which deserves notice. 
Such fruit was regarded as unclean for three years after the tree 
began to bear. That of the fourth year was consecrated to Jehovah ; 
and not until the fifth year could it be freely used by the owner as his 
own. 4 In the code of Deuteronomy the Israelites are prohibited from 
felling fruit-bearing trees in the case of the siege of a hostile city. 5 
32. Gardening. — Gardening also, using the word in its ordinary 
sense, was a form of agriculture well known to the Hebrews. 6 But 
in many cases the term " garden," when used in the Scriptures, refers 
not to a place where vegetables were raised for the support of life, 
but to one planted with , flowers, shrubs and ornamental as well as 
fruit-bearing trees, intended to minister especially to the enjoyment 
of life. They were not often found in connection with private houses, 
unless they were those of the rich and persons in high station. 7 Such 
gardens in the Occident are called " parks." The " garden of Eden," 
in which our first parents were put, seems to have been principally 
a garden of this kind ; and doubtless the memorable spot known 
as the "garden of Gethsemane" was originally such, although now 
marked only by a few gnarled, straggling olive trees. These places 

1 Detat. 32 : 13 ; 33 : 24 ; Job 29 : 6 ; Ezek. 32 : 14. 2 j b 40 : 21, 22. 3 Lev. 27 : 30 ; Deut. 
14 : 23 ; Neh. 13 : 5, 12. * Lev. 19 : 23-25 ; cf. Ex. 22 : 30 ; Deut. 20 : G. & Deut, 20 : 19. 6 Deut. 
11 : 10 ; 1 Kings 21:2; Isa. 1:8; Jer. 29 : 5 ; Amos 4 : 9 ; 9 : 14 ; Epist. of Jer. v. 70 ; Luke 13 : 19. 
1 2 Kings 25 : 4; Eccles. 2:5; Neh. 3 : 15 ; Esther 1:5; Susan, v. 4. 



PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE. 



129 



were well fitted for quiet meditation and prayer, and for the burial 
of those beloved. 1 Previous to the exile they were the favorite re- 
sort of idolaters too, who sought their shade and retirement for the 
celebration of forbidden rites. 2 

33. Metaphors from Agricultural Life. — An extraordinary 
number and variety of illustrations from agricultural life, taken, in 
fact, from almost every phase of it, are found in biblical writers. 
Among those of the Old Testament none, perhaps, is more compre- 
hensive or fitting than that of the prophet Isaiah, where he seeks to 
impress the fact that as surely as the ploughman is not content simply 
to plough, so Jehovah will not be satisfied with the beginnings of 
spiritual husbandry in connection with Israel. 3 Our Lord himself 
found no more fruitful field than this for parable and simile with 
which to enliven and carry home divine truths to the hearts of men. 
Among many other metaphors he introduced that of ploughing ; of 
sowing ; of the growing grain ; of the tares among the wheat ; of 
the fruitful and the barren tree ; of the mustard seed ; of the plant 
of his Father's planting ; of the laborers in the vineyard, under a 
burning sun; of unfaithful tenants and stewards; and, most sug- 
gestive and moving of all in its application, of the vine and its 
branches. 



i 2 Ki ngs 21 : 18 ; Matt. 26 : 36 ; John 19 : 41. 
3 1sa. 28:23-29. 



2 2 Kings 16:4; Isa. 1:29; 65:3; 66:17. 




An Egyptian Threshing-floor. (After Wilkinson.) 



CHAPTER VI. 

SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 

Of the seven so-called sciences of the ancients, grammar, logic, 
rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music, the last three 
are the only ones to which the Hebrews at all devoted themselves. 
Theology has been in all ages the sum and crown of sciences to them: 
the knowledge of God and a service comprising whatever he has 
prescribed as duty toward him and toward men. Every other sci- 
ence, as far as it was not simply a means of livelihood, was merged 
in this or made subsidiary to it. 

1. The Heavenly Bodies. — Astronomy cannot be said to have 
attained among the Hebrews the position of a science. Along with 
mathematics it was chiefly studied as a necessary means for the ad- 
justment of the calendar. There was not only a very imperfect 
knowledge of facts touching the sidereal heavens, but there is little 
evidence of any effort to systematize and arrange them. The stars 
were known as the "host of heaven." 1 The sun and moon seem 
always to have been distinguished from one another and from the 
remaining heavenly bodies ; but no distinction is made in the Old 
Testament between planets and fixed stars, nor is there, apparently, 
any recognition of comets. Silence, however, is not here to be taken 
as a sure sign of ignorance. The unique purpose of the Bible is 
never to be forgotten. Since the Hebrew calendar was so largely 
based on the phases of the moon, it had a peculiar prominence in 
their thought. The appearance of the new moon was ahvays hailed 
with the blast of trumpets and with special sacrifices. 2 

Certain single stars and constellations are mentioned in the Old 
Testament. Venus is called the " morning star" in Isaiah 14 : 12. 
The Pleiades are referred to in a few passages ; 3 so too Orion, under 
the poetic image of a giant chained to the skies ; as well as Arcturus, 
or the Great Bear, and the Serpent. 4 It will be recalled that in the 
New Testament the "sign" of the ship on which Paul sailed from 
Melita to Rome was Castor and Pollux (Gr., Dioscuri), rendered in 
the Revised Version the "Twin Brothers." 5 In the prophecy of 

l Isa. 40 : 26 ; Jer. 33 : 22. 2 Num. 10 : 10 ; 28 : 11-15 ; 29 : 1 ; 1 Ohron. 28 : 31 ; 2 Ohron. 2:4; 
8:13; Ezek. 46:6. 3 Job 9 : 9; 38 : 31 ; Amos 5:8. * Job 26 : 13. * Acts 28: 11. 
130 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 



131 




Persian Fly-Fan. 



Babylonian Zodiac (?) or " arrangement of Constellations." {From 
Babylonian Black Stone, twelfth century B.C., in British- Museum.) 





Gate and Gateway engraved on 
a Babylonian Cylinder. 




Chaldaean Clay Tablet bearing notice of the Deluge. 



Egyptian Siphons, B.C. 1450. 
Fig 1 pours the liquid into vases c from 
the cup h. Y\%. 2 draws it off by siphons 
a into vessel d. 



132 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

Amos it is noted that divine worship was paid in the northern king- 
dom to Saturn under its old Shemitic name of Chiun. 1 The word 
" mazzaroth," in Job 38 : 32, has been translated in the margin of 
the Revised Version " the signs of the Zodiac," as also a similar w T ord 
in 2 Kings 23 : 5. Both expressions seem to refer to supposed sta- 
tions in the progress of the sun and moon through the skies. 

The Bible everywhere recognizes the fixed course and determined 
order of the heavenly bodies. 2 Their vast number is often used as 
an illustration. 3 Their majesty and glory is not overlooked, or 
even the different degrees of it when they are compared together. 4 
They are always looked upon as a part of the one universe of God, 
being named, numbered, controlled and called into service as well as 
originally made by him. 5 Repeated warnings appear in the Old 
Testament against the practice of astrology, which, as a kind of 
magic, was wide-spread among neighboring peoples. 6 

2. Structure of the Earth, etc. — Concerning the structure 
of the earth and its relations to the remaining heavenly bodies too 
much knowledge must not be expected of the ancient Hebrews. 
That, however, they are not to be put on a simple equality with the 
other nations of antiquity the first chapter of Genesis and many 
other scriptural evidences of the superiority of their information 
amply show. There is special danger of interpreting the highly- 
poetical language used by Old Testament writers, when the creation 
is referred to, in a way to do great injustice to their real sentiments. 7 
God is described in Isaiah as sitting on the " circle of the earth ;" 
and the author of Job represents that the earth was created subse- 
quent to the other planets and was suspended "upon nothing." 8 
In surprising harmony, however, with the facts of science, we read 
in Genesis 1 : 6 of the heavens as an expanse (" firmament ") ; in 
Genesis 2 : 6 of a mist that went up " from the earth and watered 
the whole face of the ground." The Hebrew word for mist itself 
indicates something that goes and returns. In like manner there 
are some remarkable statements in the book of Ecclesiastes concern- 
ing the course of the winds, which imply, to say the least, a more 
than ordinary keenness of observation. 9 

3. Reckoning and Numbers. — It would appear that men began 
first to reckon by means of the five fingers. The number five in 
Hebrew is derived from a root signifying to draw the fingers together. 

* Amos 5 : 26. 2 j U( j g . g . 20 ; Job 38 : 33 ; Jer. 31 : 35 ; 33 : 25. 3 Gen. 15 : 5 ; 22 : 17 ; 26 : 4. 
4 Job 25 : 5 ; Dan. 12 : 3 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 41. & Gen. 1 : 16 ; Job 9 : 7 ; Ps. 8 : 3 ; 147 : 4 ; Isa. 40 : 26, 
<>Gen. 41:8,24; Isa. 47:13; Jer.l0:2; Dan. 1 : 20. * Job9: 6; 38 : 4; Ps. 75:3. *Job38:7; 
Isa. 40 .: 22. » Eccles. 1:6; cf. Gen. 2 : 6. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 133 

Provision is made in the language by special words only for the units, 
ten, one hundred, one thousand and ten thousand. All the other 
numbers are indicated by the plurals or duals of these. The use of 
five as a multiple was naturally very common. It is probably due 
to the simplicity of this decimal system on the one hand, and on the 
other to the preference of the Hebrews for round numbers, that w T e 
find so little use made of fractions where otherwise they might have 
been expected. That it is intended to give simply round numbers 
is shown by the fact that not infrequently other numbers, the next 
higher or the next lower, are mentioned as being possibly more nearly 
correct. 

The Hebrew alphabet was also used as signs of numbers. When 
this method of reckoning started it is not possible to say. In the 
absence of proof to the contrary it may be held that it began with 
the use of the perfected alphabet itself. The verses of the alpha- 
betical psalms are so numbered. The first documentary evidence 
of the custom outside of the Bible is found on Maccabsean coins. 
It was adopted by the Greeks after the time of the Ptolemies. That 
they took it from the Hebrews through the Phoenicians has been 
argued but not proved. From the Moabite Stone it might be inferred 
that besides these methods of reckoning, numbers were also indicated 
by words written in full. And it is not impossible that a system of 
distinct numerical signs also early existed, as was the case in Phoe- 
nicia, Egypt and Babylon. Some of the variations of numbers in 
parallel passages of the Bible, it is likely, arose from different ways 
of reckoning and the changes necessary in passing from one system 
to another. 1 

4. There are certain numbers used in the Bible in a representative 
capacity, apparently without any intention of giving precise figures. 
Seven and its multiples, for example, is a number of completeness, 
and on this account is especially used of sacred things. 2 The same 
is true, though to a less extent, of ten ; so "two and three," like our 
" two or three," often indicates an indefinitely small number ; while 
" three and four," " six and seven," " seven and eight," denote a num- 
ber indefinitely large. 3 For an unlimited period of past time the 
Hebrews had a formula signifying "yesterday and the day before." 4 
A symbolical or typical sense was also given to numbers. The num- 
bers three and four, for instance, were invested with a mystical sig- 

I With 1 Kings 4 : 26 cf. 2 Chron. 9 : 25, and with 2 Kings 24 : 8 cf. 2 Chron. 36 : 9. 2 j„dg. 
9 : 56 ; 2 Kings 10 : 1 ; Jer. 25 : 11 ; 29 : 10 ; Matt, 18 : 22. 3 Ex. 20 : 5 ; Job 5 . 19 ; Amos 1:3; 
Micah 5:5. * Deut. 19 : 4 ; 1 Sam. 4:7:2 Sam. 3 : 17. 



134 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

nificance, as well as their sum and their multiple. The same is true 
of five, ten, forty and seventy. The whole subject, however, espec- 
ially in its prophetical aspect, is surrounded with grave difficulties. 
No one theory respecting it meets with general approval. For its 
fuller discussion the reader is referred to the Bible dictionaries. 

5. Divisions of Day and Night. — The method of reckoning 
the time of day by the lengthening of the shadows and of the night 
by the position of the constellations is doubtless the most ancient. 
The word hour, for which the Hebrew has no specific term, is quite 
commonly used in a vague sense in the Scriptures. 1 The dial of 
Ahaz, which he seems to have procured from Assyria, was apparently 
a series of steps on which the shadow of a pillar or obelisk fell. 2 
The number of its divisions and the length of time they indicated 
it is not possible to determine. It is certain that in Babylon, as 
early as the eighth century before Christ, the clay was divided into 
periods of twelve hours each. The same was true, and at a much 
earlier period, of Egypt. 

The Egyptians divided both the day and the night into twelve 
parts ; and, according to the highest authority, the word used for 
one of these divisions dates back to the fifth dynasty. Hence it 
would be hazardous to infer that the Hebrews, previous to the exile, 
were unacquainted with such a twelvefold division of time. When an 
hour is spoken of in the New Testament, it should be borne in mind 
that simply one of these twelve divisions is meant, reckoning from 
sunrise to sunset or vice versa. They varied in length according to 
the season of the year. The length of the day in Palestine ranged 
between one of fourteen hours and twelve minutes and one of nine 
hours and forty-eight minutes. Accordingly, when the third or any 
other hour is mentioned, the exact astronomical time, the time of 
sunrise being given, can only be determined by computation. The 
sixth hour of the day would always be at noon, but the third hour fell 
half way between sunrise and the time that the sun reached the zenith. 

6. The division of the night into watches of four hours each dates 
at least from the time of the judges. 3 In Lamentations mention 
is made of " the beginning of the watches ;" and elsewhere, of the 
" morning," or third, watch. 4 The ancient Greeks, also, divided the 
night into three watches ; but the Romans had four, each of three 
hours. After the Roman occupation of Palestine their divisions of 
time were to some extent adopted by the Jews in ordinary life ; 5 but 

1 Dan. 3 : 6 ; Matt. 8 : 13 ; Luke 12 : 39. 2 o Kings 20 : 9-1 1 ; Isa. 38 : 8. 3 Judg. 7 : 19. 

* Lam. 2 : 19 ; cf. Ex. 14: 24; 1 Sam. 11 : 11. r -> .Mark 6 : 48 ; 13; 35 ; Luke 12 : 88 ; Acts 12 : 4. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 135 

in the temple service the old method was adhered to. In Talmudic 
usage a watch is always equivalent to one third of the night. What 
instruments, other than dials, the Hebrews may have had for mark- 
ing the lapse of time it is not now possible to say. It is probable 
that, like their contemporaries, they made use of gnomons and the 
so-called clepsydra, among other devices. The clepsydra, or water- 
clock, was an Alexandrian invention of the second century before 
Christ, and of tolerable accuracy. 

7. Like some other ancient peoples, the Hebrews were accustomed 
to begin the day with the evening. It was notably not the custom 
of the Babylonians or of the Romans, from the latter of whom our 
method of reckoning it from morniug to morning is derived. 1 It is 
an interesting fact that in the first chapter of Genesis, where a day 
of labor — that is, a day proper in distinction from the night — is 
spoken of, it is made to begin with the morning. We find also 
indications that in ordinary life the day was sometimes understood 
to continue until its work was over and the rest of the night began. 
The days of the w T eek, excepting the Sabbath and in later times 
Friday, the " day of preparation" for it, had no special designation, 
but were simply numbered from one to seven. The three principal 
parts of the day were known as morning, midday and evening. A 
variety of names was given to them, as " dawn," " sunrise," " sun- 
set," " the light of the day," " the heat of the day," " the cool (lit., 
the wind) of the day." 2 In the ceremonial law the date for the 
celebration of the passover is fixed on the fourteenth of Nisan, " be- 
tween the evenings," that is, at twilight. Later usage, however, 
extended the time from about three o'clock to sundown. 

8. Allowing for difference of time in different seasons of the year, 
the three hours of prayer observed by the Jews were the third hour, 
or about nine o'clock ; the sixth hour, or noon ; and the ninth hour, 
or three o'clock in the afternoon. 3 The word day is often used met- 
aphorically in the Bible. A man's day, for example, might be 
either his birthday or the day of his death. 4 The "day of the 
Lord " in the mouth of the prophets meant a time when Jehovah 
would come in judgment or in some new development of his prov- 
idence. 5 To a distinction between so-called " lucky " and " un- 
lucky" days, so common in both the ancient and modern Orient, 
the Scriptures give no encouragement. 6 

9. The Week. — The institution of the week of seven days we 

i Ex. 12 : 18 ; Lev. 23 : 32 ; Dan. 8 : 14. 2 Gen. 3 : 8 ; 24 : 63. 3 Matt. 27 : 45 ; Mark 15 : 25 ; 
Luke 23: 44. * 1 Sam. 26: 10; Job 3: 1 ; 18:20. 5 Mai. 3 : 2. 6 Isa. 47 : 13. 



136 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

find recognized as an established fact in the oldest books of the 
Bible. It appears to be taken account of in the narrative of the 
flood, and of Laban's arrangements with Jacob. 1 In the legislation 
of Moses it is made a specially prominent feature in settling the 
calendar of the feasts. 2 The question when it arose is much dis- 
cussed. The account in Genesis 2 : 2, 3 strongly supports the 
hypothesis that, like the family, it was an original institution of 
the race and began with the beginning of human history. It is 
certain that as yet there has been no period discovered when the 
week was unknown to the Shemitic peoples, to whom the Hebrews 
belonged. When Abraham went out from Ur of the Chaldees, he 
no doubt carried with him a knowledge of this fundamental division 
of time ; and whatever their practice may have been, the Hebrews 
as a race can never have been wholly without acquaintance with it. 3 
p 10. The Month. — The length of the Hebrew month was deter- 
mined, in general, by the course of the moon. The names for month 
and moon have the same root. Previous to the exile the months 
were for the most part simply numbered ; and the same was true, 
to a considerable extent, after the exile. Of post-exilian writers, 
the books of Ezra, Esther and Zechariah give both the name and 
numerical order of the month ; Nehemiah, the name only ; Daniel 
and Haggai, the number only. During the former period names 
are given in the Bible to only four of the months — Abib, Ziv, Bui 
and Ethanim. 4 Of the last three the number in the series is also 
indicated. 

11. It is now generally agreed that the names applied to the 
months after the exile are of Assyrian or Babylonian origin. In 
fact all of them have been found together on a tablet unearthed at 
Nineveh. Their etymological significance has not been satisfactorily 
settled in every case. These names and their order are as follows : — 
Nisan, 5 Iyar, Sivan, 6 Tammuz, Ab, Elul, 7 Tishri, Marcheshvan, Chis- 
lev, 8 Tebeth, 9 Shebat, 10 Adar, 11 and an intercalary month, Veadar. 
Of these names five do not occur in the Bible ; but they are to be 
found in the Talmud and other Jewish literature. The later Nisau 
corresponds to the earlier Abib ; Iyar to Ziv ; Tishri to Ethanim ; 
and Marcheshvan to Bui. As the ordinary Hebrew month was 
lunar, while our own is solar, it is not possible to identify them pre- 
cisely ; but Nisan (Abib) corresponds very nearly to April, Iyar 

iGen. 7:4; 8:10; 29:27 ; cf. 17:12. 2 Lev. 23: 15. 8 Ex. 16:28. « Ex. IS : 4 ; 1 Klnga 
6:1,3S;8:2. BNeh. 2:1. °Esth. 8:9. ' Keh. 6:15. « Neh. 1 : 1. »Esth. 2:16. 
io Zeoh. 1:7. " Kstli. a : 7. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 137 

(Ziv) to May, and so on through the series. After the establish- 
ment of the Syro-Macedonian empire the names of the months were 
for a third time changed in Hebrew literature. Josephus uses the 
Macedonian calendar only. Instances of the same usage are found 
in the Old Testament apocryphal books. 1 

12. The question whether the earlier Hebrews were acquainted 
w T ith the solar as well as the lunar month must be answered, it would 
appear, in the affirmative. Their names for the months, as found 
in the oldest books of the Bible, seem to require such an hypothesis. 
They are significant only as referring to certain definite seasons of 
the year. Abib, for example, was the month of " the ears of corn ;" 
Ziv, the month of " blossoms." Such designations would scarcely 
have been employed if the lunar month only had been known. In 
that case Abib and Ziv could only occasionally have been the months 
of "the ears of corn" and of " blossoms," respectively. It is well 
known, too, that in Egypt the solar year was in use long before the 
exodus. It had twelve months of thirty days each, together w 7 ith 
five other intercalated days. The Bible itself indirectly furnishes 
other facts confirmatory of the theory. In its statement concerning 
the time the flood continued, the month is reckoned as a period of 
thirty days, five of them being equal to a hundred and fifty days. 2 
In the same account the flood is described as lasting from the seven- 
teenth day of the second month to the twenty-seventh of the same 
month in the following year, that is, during one lunar year, plus 
eleven days, which would be equal to the solar year. 3 

13. The Mosaic legislation for the feasts was based on the lunar 
month ; and this system subsequently prevailed. The passover took 
place at the full of the moon in Nisan. The beginning of the month, 
that is, the appearance of the new moon, was carefully noted by 
observers appointed for the purpose, and officially announced. Owing 
to obscuration uncertainty might arise concerning the exact time of 
the moon's appearance ; but it was not difficult to secure a sufficient 
degree of accuracy in a number of ways. 4 The days of the month 
were reckoned at twenty-nine and thirty alternately. This would 
give a year of three hundred and fifty-four days. The actual lunar 
year was longer by eight hours, forty-eight minutes and thirty-eight 
seconds. To correct this discrepancy, and adjust the calendar to the 
course of the sun, it was customary about every third year to add a 
thirteenth month, called, as above, " Veadar," that is, another Adar, 

i 2 Mace. 11 : 30, 33, 38. 2 Gen. 7 : 11, 24 ; cf. 8 : 4 ; Num. 20 : 29 ; Deut. 34 : 8. 3 Gen. 
7 : 11 ; 8 : 14. * 1 Sam. 20 : 5, 24, 27. 



138 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

that being the name of the twelfth month. In a period of nineteen 
years it required the intercalation of seven such months in order to 
bring the Jewish calendar into harmony with our own. We find 
nothing concerning this intercalary month in the Bible. 

14. The Year. — The Mosaic law enjoined that the year should 
begin with the month Abib (Nisan). 1 Throughout the Old Tes- 
tament, in writings which arose both before and after the exile, 
this mode of reckoning is followed. But it is evident that, at least 
from the period of the exodus, there was also another way of begin- 
ning the year. In Exodus 23: 16, for example, the feast of taber- 
nacles, which began on the fifteenth of Tishri, is spoken of as taking 
place at " the end of the year." 2 But Tishri was only the seventh 
month of the calendar. It seems quite likely therefore that a dis- 
tinction was ordinarily made between what was known as the eccle- 
siastical, and the agricultural and civil, year. For an agricultural 
people in Palestine a natural time to begin the year would be in the 
fall, when the harvests were over and the seed-time began. Jose- 
phus directly states that Moses appointed Nisan as the first month 
of the festivals, and that it began the year as to " all the solemnities 
they observed to the honor of God, although he preserved the 
original order of the months as to selling and buying and other 
ordinary affairs." 3 It is certain that both the sabbatic and jubilee 
years began with the seventh month. 4 The custom of celebrating 
the first of Tishri as New Year's day was not introduced until after 
the exile. 

15. The first period adopted by the Hebrews from which to num- 
ber their years was the exodus. 5 After the establishment of the 
kingdom, years were often numbered from the accession of certain 
kings to the throne. 6 Subsequent to the Babylonian captivity the 
Seleucidian era was adopted, which began B.C. 312. With the re- 
establishment of the commonwealth under Judas Maceabseus, that 
event was taken as an epoch or era, but was soon after abandoned 
for the Seleucidian, which continued in use until near the twelfth 
century a.d. At that time the Jews began to reckon from the "cre- 
ation of the world." This practice is still followed. Accordingly, 
to arrive at the number of the Jew r ish year we have to add to the 
year of our. era the number 3761. The Hebrews distinguished but 
two seasons in the year, summer and winter ; but the various har- 
vests were used to indicate-special periods. We read frequently, for 

1 Ex. 12:2; cf. 9 : 31. 2 Ex. 2J? : 16 ; cf. 34 : 22 ; Isa. 29 : 1 ; 32 : 10 ; 37 : 30. 8 Josephus, 

Antiq. 1,3:3. * Lev. 25 : 9, 10. & 1 Kings 6:1. « 2 Kings 11:4; 12 : 1 ; 15:1. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 



139 



example, of the time of barley harvest, wheat harvest, or the har- 
vest of grapes and the time of seed-sowing. 1 

16. Music in General. — To music, both vocal and instrumental, 
a high position is assigned in the Bible. In his noted eulogy of 
famous men the son of Sirach classes those who " found out musical 
harmonies, and set forth poetic compositions in writing" with such 
as " bore rule in their kingdoms, and men renowned for their power ; 
who gave counsel in their discernment, and uttered prophecies." 2 
Then, as now, men were capable of abus- 
ing their musical gifts, as did some in 




Stringed Instruments, Cymbals and 
Kettle-drum. 



Trumpets, Pipes or Double Flute, 
Cornet and Sistrum. 



luxurious Samaria, who fell under the rebuke of Amos, singing 
"idle songs to the sound of the viol ;" 3 still, the study and practice 
of music was regarded as worthy of the noblest minds. Music was 
the pastime of the lonely shepherd. 4 It formed a principal attrac- 
tion of the social gatherings of youth at the city gates. 5 It was the 
indispensable accompaniment of every festival occasion, whether 
family or national/' Above all, it was an exceedingly important 
feature of the worship of the temple at every period. 

Previous to the time of David, the music of the Hebrews seems 
to have been of the simplest character. It was probably such that 
the people could easily join in it without instruction. Such was the 
song of Miriam and the women of Israel at the crossing of the Red 
Sea, and the wild melody which appears to have accompanied the 
w T orship of the golden calf. 7 The silver trumpets provided for the 
tabernacle and the horns used at Jericho, as we shall see, were not 
musical instruments, but intended for the purpose of giving signals. 8 

i Gen. 30 : 14 ; Lev. 26 : 5 ; Ruth 1 : 22 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 9 ; Amos 7:1. - Eeclus. 44 : 2-4. s Amos 
6:5. 4i Sam. 16 : 18. & Lam. 5 : 14. 6 Gen. 31 : 27 ; Judg. 11 : 34 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 6 ; 1 Kings 
1 : 40; Ps. 4:7; Luke 15 : 25. ' Ex. 15 : 20, 21 ; 32 : 17, 18. 8 Num. 10 : 1-10 ; Josh. 6 : 5. 



140 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

The first direct efforts among the Israelites to cultivate music ap- 
pear in connection with the schools of the prophets, founded by 
Samuel. 1 It is, however, very likely that at a considerably earlier 
period some attention had been given to it by the Levites as a part 
of their duties at the sanctuary. 

17. Music of the Temple. — Under David's direction not less 
than four thousand musicians, or more than a tenth of the whole 
tribe of Levi, praised the Lord with "instruments" in the service 
of the temple. 2 Each great division of the tribe, Kohathites, Ger- 
shonites and Merarites, had a representative family among this num- 
ber. They were those of Heman, Asaph and Ethan or Jeduthun. 
A select body of two hundred and eighty-eight trained musicians 
led this chorus of voices, one person being placed as leader over a 
section consisting of twelve singers. 3 This smaller body of skilled 
players formed the orchestra of the temple. 4 They generally used 
stringed instruments, like the psaltery and the harp, the leaders of 
the smaller sections only being provided with cymbals, probably for 
the purpose of marking time. 5 Men and women were associated 
together in the choir. 6 It is a fact worth noting that there is no 
positive injunction to be found in the legislation of the Pentateuch 
respecting the use of music in the sanctuary. David doubtless had 
a divine warrant, through the prophets Nathan and Gad, for the 
changes introduced by him. 7 The way was prepared for the inno- 
vation by the cultivation of music in the schools of the prophets. 
The fact that no detailed account of the changes made by David in 
the temple service is found in parallel passages in the books of Kings 
in no wise affects the authenticity of the narrative in Chronicles. 
The books of Kings corroborate the latter as far as they go. They 
speak of men and women singers whom David employed at his 
court ; of his instructing the people on one occasion to sing a funeral 
ode which he had composed ; and of his making use of a service of 
song on the occasion of his bringing the ark to Mount Zion. 8 In 
what they say of Solomon, too, that he had harps and psalteries of 
sandal wood prepared for the singers, they presuppose that there 
existed at that time a musical class composed of musicians and 
singers who were employed in the temple. The context clearly 
shows that the reference cannot be to any supposed court band. 9 

The orchestra originally had its place to the east of the altar of 

1 1 Sara. 10 : 5 ; 19 : 20. "- 1 Chron. 15 : 17 ; 23 : 5, 6 ; 25 : 1-6. 3 1 Chron. 25 : 6, 7. * Ps. 
68 : 25. & 1 Chron. 15 : 19 ; 16 : 5. « 1 Chron. 25 : 5, 6 ; Ezra 2 : 65. » 2 Chron. 29 : 25. 8 2 
Sam. 1 : 17 ; 6 : 5, 14 ; 19 : 35. 9 1 Kings 10 : 12. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 141 

burnt offerings, but in the temple of Herod, on the steps that led 
from the court of the people to that of the priests. 1 Although there 
is frequent mention of the use of trumpets by the priests, it seems 
never to have been intended as, strictly speaking, a part of the music 
of the temple. 2 This was true at least in the time of our Lord. The 
priests stood on the west side of the altar, that is, somewhat removed 
from the orchestra. They also, contrary to the Levitical perform- 
ers, faced toward the people and away from the sanctuary. Their 
instruments, as already remarked, were simply for blowing blasts or 
signals, to mark, for example, the transition from one part of the 
service to another. On ordinary days there were seven occasions 
for their doing so, three blasts being given in each case. On the 
Sabbath there were additional ones blown, — three just before the 
beginning of the day, three when it began, and still others in con- 
nection with its additional services. 

Among the later kings, Hezekiah and Josiah are specially men- 
tioned as having given unusual attention to the musical services of 
the sanctuary. 3 They were not altogether neglected even during the 
depressed condition of the people subsequent to the captivity. 4 It is 
certain that the service of song formed a prominent feature of Jewish 
worship in the time of our Lord. Each day, in connection with the 
morning and the evening sacrifice, a psalm was sung, the following 
serving for the several days of the week : 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92. 
It was required that noteless than twelve voices should join in it, the 
number of instruments being unlimited. The psalm was divided into 
three sections, at the close of each one of which the priests blew three 
blasts with their trumpets and the people bowed in worship. There 
is still preserved as a part of the heading of Psalm 92 the words 
" A Psalm, aSong for the sabbath day." There were also certain 
psalms that were used on the feast days. Psalm 30 has the super- 
scription, " A Song at the Dedication of the House." 

18. Little can be said of the kinds of music practiced by the 
Hebrews, or of its development as an art. It would appear that 
the music of the temple was at no time mere cantillation, such as 
is common in modern synagogues. Much less was it an adaptation 
of the music of the people. It was a cultivated music, in which 
antiphony had a prominent place. Solo- joined with chorus-singing 
seems also to have been a common form in public service, both among 
the Jews and early Christians. 5 The singing was in unison, and not 

i 2 Chron. 5:12. 2 2 Kings 11 : 14; 2 Chron. 7 : 6 ; 29 : 26. *2 Chron. 29 : 25 ; 35 : 15. 

* Neh. 11 : 17, 22 ; 12 : 28. & N e h. 12 : 31 ; Ps. 24 : 7-10 ; Rev. 4 : 8, 10 ; 19 : 1. 



142 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

with the several parts in harmony. The only variation was prob- 
ably in the use of different octaves. Support for the theory that the 
singing was in unison is found in the Bible in 2 Chronicles 5 : 13. 
Some of the musical expressions occurriug at the beginning of 
psalms have the same bearing. 1 Others of them indicate the style 
of instrument that was to accompany the singing. Quite a number 
of the psalms are provided with these and other musical directions. 2 
That they are very old is clear from the circumstance that they were 
no longer fully understood when the oldest translation of the Bible 
was made. Some of the headings, it would appear, are the names 
or the first words of airs to which it was desired that the sing- 
ing of the psalm should be conformed. About one third of all the 
psalms have retained as a part of their superscription the words 
" To the chief musician ;" the work being thus committed to him 
for liturgical use in the temple. It was for him to see that it was 
sufficiently practiced and properly executed. There is no evidence 
that musical notes were in use in Bible times, or later before the 
seventeenth century. The whole matter is largely one of tradition. 
19. Musical Instruments — The Timbrel. — The musical in- 
struments of the Hebrews, like those of other nations of antiquity, 
were of three kinds: stringed and wind instruments and such as 
were beaten or shaken to produce sound. Of the last-named the 
"tabret" or "timbrel" (Heb., topli) was one of the most common. 
It was used chiefly by women. We find it mentioned in the open- 
ing chapters of the Bible, and often throughout the earlier history 
of Israel. 8 It is frequently spoken of in connection with the " harp" 
(Heb., Jcinnor) as furnishing music on occasions of family and public 
festivities. 4 It closely resembled the modern tambourine in form, 
and was beaten with the fingers of the right hand while held in the left. 
If the Egyptian style as it now appears on the monuments furnished 
the model, it might have been either round or four-sided. To make 
it resonant the tanned skin of some animal was tightly drawn over a 
shallow frame of wood or metal ; and generally, to the edges of the 
frame thin pieces of metal were attached, whose jingle, when the in- 
strument was beaten, was thought to improve its otherwise dull sound. 
The timbrel was much used for marking time in orchestral music, 
as also in circular dances and public processions. 5 It appears to have 
had no place in the religious services of the tabernacle or temple. 

l Ps. 6, 12, 46 ; cf. 1 Chron. 15 : 20, 21. 2 p s . 9) 22, 45, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 60. 75, 80. 3 Gon. 

4 • 21 ; 31 : 27 ; Ex. 15 : 20 ; Judg. 11 : 34 ; Jer. 31:4; Pd. 149 : 3 ; 150 : 4. * Job 21 : 12; Isa. 24 : 
8 ; 30 : 32. * Ps. 6S : 25. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 143 

20. Castanets and Cymbals. — Besides the timbrel there are 
but two other instruments belonging to its class which are mentioned 
in the Bible — castanets and cymbals. The former appear only in a 
single passage, and the revisers here give as an alternative rendering 
" sistra," instruments of quite a different character. 1 The modern 
Castanet of the Orient consists of a small concave plate of brass, 
with a handle for holding it, and is principally used by professional 
dancers. The Hebrew word for cymbal — tsiltsel — indicates the kind 
of sound produced by it. The cymbal was of two sorts. One of 
them was made up of four small plates of metal, two of which were 
held in each hand. They were smitten together to produce sound. 
The other one, called in our version "the high-sounding cymbal," 2 
more resembled the modern instrument of this name. It consisted 
simply of two large plates of metal, one for each hand. It was 
probably this form that was used by leaders in the temple music 
for marking time. It is uncertain whether triangles were in use 
among the Hebrews. The word is found as an alternative render- 
ing in 1 Samuel 18 : 6. What is probably referred to is an instru- 
ment having three strings, or a sistrum with three bars. 

21. Stringed Instruments in General. — Stringed instru- 
ments were always played in ancient times either with the fingers 
or with the plectrum, and not, like the modern violin, with a bow. 
The strings were made from the covering of the intestines of differ- 
ent animals. Various lands of wood were utilized in their manu- 
facture, the most common being the fir or cypress. It is said of 
Solomon that he made them from the "almug" tree, by which, pos- 
sibly, sandal wood is meant. 3 The stringed instruments principally 
in use among the Hebrews were the harp (Heb., kinnor) and the 
psaltery (Heb., nebel). They are very frequently mentioned to- 
gether in the Bible. The former has received a variety of names 
in the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, being confounded, 
in some cases, even with the psaltery. This has given rise to not 
a little confusion. The Revised Version has consistently trans- 
lated everywhere the Hebrew word kinnor by " harp " and nebel 
everywhere by "psaltery," except in Isaiah 22 : 24 ("flagon") and 
in Amos 5 : 23 ; 6 : 5 (" viol "). There is considerable difference of 
opinion among scholars concerning the nature of the instruments. 
It is very probable that each of them had more than one form ; and 
it would appear to be safer to depend on the representations of the 
ancient monuments in determining their character than on those of 

1 2 Sam. 6:5. 2 p s . 150 ; 5. 3 1 Kings 10 : 12. 



144 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

late writers like Josephus, who might easily be too much influenced 
in their judgments by the customs of their own times. 1 

22. The Harp. — What we know of the harp of the Bible answers 
fairly well to the lyre, or harp, of the Egyptian monuments. The 
latter in general appearance resembles the modern harp, and is pro- 
vided with a varying number of strings. In its smaller form it 
could easily have been carried about in processions. The same in- 
strument was also well known to the Assyrians. When in use, it 
was held before them, as the pictorial representations show, with the 
left arm, and the lower end allowed to rest on the hip. The Egyp- 
tian lyre, moreover, would seem to have come originally from western 
Asia. The earliest figures of it on the monuments of Egypt are in 
connection with the immigration of Shemitic families during the 
twelfth dynasty. At this period it consisted only of a board nearly 
square, in the upper half of which a hole was cut, and across it a 
number of strings, apparently seven or eight, were stretched. The 
same instrument, considerably improved in form, reappears on the 
monuments of succeeding dynasties. The probability that this is 
the instrument known among the Hebrews as the kinnor is strength- 
ened by the fact that one closely corresponding to it is found on 
coins belonging to the Maccabsean period. 

23. The Psaltery. — The etymology of the Hebrew word ren- 
dered "psaltery" would suggest an instrument having considerable 
body. It was for this reason, perhaps, that the revisers did not 
think it best to change the rendering of the common version in Amos 
5 : 23 ; 6:5, where it is given as " viol." In Isaiah 22 : 24 the con- 
text shows that " flagon," that is, skin-bottle, properly stands as its 
representative. Over a resonance chamber, doubtless resembling 
such a skin-bottle, the strings passed. They were fewer than those 
of the harp, since ten were regarded as an uncommonly large number 
for it. 2 If right conclusions have been reached respecting the harp, 
the psaltery, it is likely, resembled what is now known in the East 
as the tamboora, or guitar, an instrument which also figures largely 
on both the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. In its present 
shape it is thus described by Van Lennep : 3 " In its most complete 
and perfect form, this instrument is three feet and nine inches long, 
has ten strings of fine wire, and forty-seven stops. It is played with 
a plectrum, and is often inlaid with mother-of-pearl and valuable 
woods. It is oftener, however, of smaller size and less costly ma- 
terials. ... It is represented, in these plainer forms, on many of the 

i Josephus, A/Uiq. 7, 12 : 3. " Ps. 33 : 2. 8 Bible Lands, p. 612. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 145 

monuments of ancient Egypt, for it seems to Lave been a great 
favorite with her people, though it has wholly disappeared from 
among their posterity." The revisers have left the rendering 
"psaltery" in our English Bible for the Aramaic word pesanterin, 
in which others find the " dulcimer," while giving the latter render- 
ing (marg., " bagpipe ") to sumponeyah, by which others suppose 
the bagpipe is meant. 1 

24. The Sackbut. — A peculiar instrument, rendered " sackbut" 
in our version, is mentioned in the book of Daniel. 1 The transla- 
tion, however, seems to be somewhat wide of the mark ; since the 
instrument known in modern times as the sackbut is a wind instru- 
ment, "a bass trumpet with a slide like the modern trombone" 
(Fr., saquebute, and Span., sacabuche). The Hebrew sabbekha, 
on the other hand, was doubtless a stringed instrument, the Greek 
sambyx (Lat., sambuca). In form it appears to have been inter- 
mediate between the guitar and harp. It is found represented on 
the Egyptian monuments, and was well known throughout the East 
in the later biblical times. It had but a few short strings, and its 
tones were sharp and piercing. The resoun ding-board was in shape 
like the keel of a ship, the three or four strings being stretched from 
stem to stern. 

25. Wind Instruments — The Flute. — A favorite wind instru- 
ment of the ancients was the flute, or flageolet. It was found in a 
great variety of forms, two even being sometimes bound together 
with one mouth-piece. In its simplest form it was a reed, or some 
variety of wood in the shape of a reed, eighteen inches or more in 
length, bored throughout evenly and pierced with holes in the sides 
for notes. Provision was made at first, it would seem, for only two 
or three notes ; but gradually the number was increased until now 
the so-called nay of the East is arranged for six. The nay is played 
by blowing across the sharp edge of the upper end, and great skill 
is required to produce anything like a musical tone. There seem, 
however, always to have been pipes of the same general class which 
were played by blowing into a hole at the side. This instrument is 
mentioned among others in the Bible as used on festival occasions, 
both private and public, as also on those of mourning. 2 Among the 
later Israelites it was considered indispensable, even for the poorest 
man, to have not less than two performers on flutes present at the 
funeral of a wife. 

1 Oan. 3 : 5, 7, 10, 15. 2 1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; I Kings 1 : 40 ; Isa. 30 : 29 ; Matt. 9 : 23 ; 11 : 17 : Rev. 

18 : 22. 

10 



146 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

26. The "Pipe." — Another wind instrument, mentioned a few 
times in the Bible, is the ugab (" organ ;" Revised Version, "pipe"). 
It apparently consisted of a number of pipes of different sizes, open 
only at one end, and so constructed as to admit of being blown into 
at the other, either successively or simultaneously. There was a 
very ancient instrument of this kind known to the Greeks as the 
syrinx (Lai., fistula). It is not strange that the original word was 
rendered by the earlier English translators, following the Vulgate, 
" organ ;" l the principal difference between it and what for a long 
time has been known as the organ being that the pipes of the for- 
mer answer better to the ordinary flute, wdiile those of the latter 
correspond to the flute a bee, that is, a flute with a beak, a mouth- 
piece at its extremity directing the column of air against a sharp 
perforated edge. The ugab is named among the earliest musical 
instruments invented by men, and is more likely to have been 
developed into an organ than to have been developed from one at so 
early a period. 2 It is directly suggested by the double flute, which 
must have been well known to the Hebrews, though we have no con- 
clusive evidence from the Bible that they were accustomed to use it. 

27. The Trumpet. — The trumpets spoken of in the Bible, known 
under three names, appear to have been of only two kinds (keren- 
shophar, chatsotsera). The word her en occurs in two passages only, 
being translated in the former " horn," and in the latter " cornet." 3 
Most authorities render the word yobel, found in connection with keren 
in the book of Joshua, by "jubilee" (so "jubilee horn," not "ram's 
horn," with the Revised Version). Undoubtedly this instrument 
originally consisted of the horn of some animal, like the ram, chamois 
or ox, the tip of which had been perforated ; or, if made of metal, 
having the same general form. Its most common name w^as shophar, 
and it was blown either in blasts or with a prolonged note. Only 
on rare occasions was it used as an accompaniment to other musical 
instruments, particularly when a specially startling effect was de- 
sired. 4 It was made use of to proclaim war, for signalling an attack, 
and for ordering a retreat or disband meut. 5 It was blown by watch- 
men to give an alarm, 6 and as a token of joy at the coronation of 
kings. 7 Its use on religious occasions was mostly confined to usher- 
ing in the festival of the new moon in the seventh month and the 
year of jubilee. 8 

i Gen. 4:21; Job 21: 12; 30:31; Ps. 150 : 4. * Gen. 4: 21. » Josh. 6:5; Dan. 3:5, 7, 10,15. 
* 2 Sam. 6 : 15 ; 1 Chron. 15 : 28 ; Ps. 47 : 5 ; 98 : 6 ; 150 : 3 ; Dan. 3 : 5, 7, 10, 15. 6 Judg. 3 : 27 ; 

7 : 16 ; 2 Sam. 2 • 28 ; 20 : 1, 22 ; Job 39 : 24. 6 Hos. 8:1; Amos 3:6. * 2 Sam. 15 : 10 ; 2 

Kings 9:13. 8 Lev. 23:24; 25:9; Num. 29:1; Ps. 81 : 3. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 147 

28. The trumpet proper, on the other hand [chatsotsera), was 
almost exclusively a priestly instrument. There were at first but 
two of them, and by express divine command they were made of 
silver. 1 Though like the horn sometimes used for giving signals for 
the people to assemble both in peace and war, these silver instru- 
ments were commonly appropriated to religious services. 2 In the 
temple of Solomon their number was increased from two to one 
hundred and twenty. 3 The form it had in later times is seen on 
Jewish coins, and is definitely described by Josephus. 4 It appears 
to have been a little more than two feet in length (Josephus says 
that it was "a little less than a cubit long"), was narrow and 
straight, and at the bottom had a bell-like protuberance much like 
the hautboy of the modern Orient. 

29. The Art of Writing. — That the Israelites at the time of 
the exodus understood the art of alphabetical writing is no longer 
subject of dispute. That the art was practiced by the patriarchs of 
an earlier period the Bible furnishes little positive evidence. It 
does allude incidentally to the fact that Judah had a seal-ring ; and 
from other sources we know that seal-rings provided with written 
characters would not have been an anachronism at that time. 5 The 
Bible certainly contains the oldest literature yet discovered, written 
in this, the most perfect outward form of literature. Although 
Moses is the first one spoken of in the Bible as a writer, the art is 
not represented as anything new. 6 In addition to the priests, a class 
of persons whose special business it was to write would seem to have 
existed in his day. 7 The Hebrew word shoterim does not in itself 
necessarily mean " writer ;" still the connection in which it is used 
in the Pentateuch shows that a knowledge of the art of writing on 
the part of this class is generally presupposed. 

In Deuteronomy the injunction to write an. abstract of the law on 
the posts of the doors of course implies the ability to write. 8 In the 
book of Joshua we find that a copy of the law of Moses was written 
on stones prepared for the purpose ; also, that a description of the 
land of Canaan was drawn up in order to facilitate its division by 
lot. 9 And in Judges it is related of a young man who is incident- 
ally captured that he is able to write down a long list of names com- 
prising the eldership and the princes of Succoth. 10 It is difficult, 
moreover, to see how such extended pieces of poetic composition as 

i Num. 10 : 1-10. 2 Num. 31:6; 2 Kings 11 : 14; 12 : 13; 2 Chron. 13 : 12, 14. 3 2 Chron. 
5 : 12. * Josephus, Antiq. 3, 12 : 6. 5 Gen. 38 : 18. 6 Ex. 17:14; 24 : 4 ; Num. 33 : 2. 

» Ex. 5: 6; Num. 5: 23; 11: 16. & Deut. 6 : 9; 11 : 20. 9 Josh. 18 : 6, 8, 9 ; cf. 10 : 13. ™ Jadg. 
8:14. 



1 



148 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

we find in Numbers and in Judges could well have been preserved 
unless they had been in a written form. 1 After the time of David 
the practice of writing in all its forms, as letters, despatches, busi- 
ness contracts, legal documents, and the like, was common with 
every class of the people. 2 

30. It is now pretty generally agreed that Tacitus was right in 
ascribing the discovery of alphabetical writing to Egypt. Allowing 
then the long sojourn of Israel in Egypt, there is no difficulty in 
understanding how the art came to be developed to such a degree 
among them in Moses' day ; or the otherwise most surprising literary 
products presented to us in the Pentateuch and the book of Joshua. 
From the time of Isaiah, it would appear that besides the customary 
written character there was another representing a more running 
hand, and possibly letters of a smaller size. 3 Others find in the 
prophet's " pen of a man " an indication that already the larger 
Aramaic character had been introduced, and that he was bidden to 
use the old, rather than the new, style. 4 But this is questionable; 
although the Aramaic was doubtless understood by some persons in 
Israel at this date. This Aramaic character, which is the one now 
solely in use in our Hebrew Bible, supplanted the original Hebrew 
alphabet after the Babylonian exile. The latter, however, still 
exists, in its general features, in the Samaritan alphabet, the inscrip- 
tion of the Moabite Stone, belonging to the ninth century B.C., and 
on extant coins of the Maccabsean period. 

31. Languages of the Bible. — The entire Old Testament was 
originally written in the Hebrew language, excepting Daniel 2 : 4- 
7 : 28 ; Ezra 4 : 8-6 : 18 ; 7 : 12-26 ; Jeremiah 10 : 11, which were 
written in the closely-allied Aramaic. The expression " Hebrew 
language" is not found in the Old Testament. It is there called the 
" language of Canaan," a strong incidental proof of the origin of 
the language itself. 5 Most scholars are in fact agreed that some 
dialect of the Hebrew was spoken in Canaan at the time of Abra- 
ham's migration thither. This theory is corroborated by the cir- 
cumstance that the Phoenician language, still preserved in numerous 
inscriptions, is strikingly analogous to the Hebrew in vocabulary 
and in many characteristic formations of nouns and verbs. The 
language which Abraham had previously spoken was also, like the 
Hebrew, Shemitic ; but it was probably that which is now being so 
marvellously brought to light in connection with the Babylonian 

i Num. 21: 27-30; Ju<1g. 5. «1 Kings 21: 8, 11; 2 Kings 10:1; 2 Chron. 30: 1; Job 31:35; 
Jer. 32 : 10. a i 3a . g : i. 4 l aa , - M : 11 ; cf. Ezra 1 : 7. '•> Isa. 1'J : 16. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 



149 




W. 



> y >> •}.**"•? y j 



Timbrel. (After specimen in Kensing- 
ton Museum, London.) 




Writing on Cameo of Nebuchadnez- 
zar. About 575 B.C. 




'Sy-J?*i> 






o» 



Vr- 



I <r ,p 1 w -v ,<fifi3Jf.X*.^n Jfj^wjjyji ^/-irixMI^ 

jl^y°+&£j\9*\ ■W'rtJ .1? ^ ^"W-K- *1YH? 
3 fl^^-'^ I'M .I* 143 



MM 

Moabite Stone, with Inscription of King Mesha. 
About B.C. 900. 










3W banw bpw 

Ancient and Modern Hebrew Writing. 

Lines 1 and 3 read : Shekel Israel (and date) ; 2 and 4 read: 
Jerusalem, the Holy. 



Writing on a Phoenician Seal. 
About 1200 B.C. 




Portion of a Turkish Letter. 



150 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



and Assyrian monuments of the East. That the original dialect of 
Canaan was largely developed and adapted to its higher use in con- 
nection with the immigration and peculiar history of the Israelitish 
people is more than probable. 

32. One has remarked that the Hebrew language indeed appears 
as fully developed in the time of Moses as though it had been for a 
long period the language of books: — "But why should this gifted 
man, who to this end had been instructed in all the wisdom of Egypt, 
not have been possessed of the means to take an original path in the 
province of language, and have served as a model for future cen- 
turies, without having himself worked from extant models? What 
model or predecessor in his work had Luther ? Did not Ulfilas give 
to the wild Goths along with the alphabet a translation of the Scrip- 
tures ? Particularly instructive is it that the beginnings of the art 
of writing among the Korashites were shortly before the rise of 
Mohammed ; and yet the Koran was fully composed in writing." 1 

33. Materials for Writing. — Not only did the Israelites learn 
from Egypt the art of writing, but also borrowed thence, as it would 

seem, nearly all the re- 
quisites for its practice. 
There are two expres- 
sions in the Bible for 
pen, both of which car- 
ry etymologically the 
idea of a graving-in- 
strument. 2 One of them 
is even characterized 
sometimes as a " pen of 
iron." 3 This is due to the fact that the same style of utensil was 
used for writing and for engraving on wood or metal. For ordinary 
writing the reed-pen was undoubtedly the most common. 4 Both the 
pen and the little store of ink were carried by professional writers 
in the girdle. 5 A knife w 7 as also found convenient for keeping the 
reed-pen in order and for cuttiug the material on which the writing 
was done. 6 The ink was ordinarily black. We are not informed 
how it was prepared in the earliest times. 

34. It is probable that the first writing-material was papyrus- 
paper. The plant grows luxuriantly in Egypt, and somewhat 
abundantly also, at the present day, in some parts of Palestine. 7 




Pens and Writing-materials. 



l Kinzlcr, Bib. Altertiimer, p. 415. 2 Ex. 32 : 4 ; Isa. 8 : 1 
Jer. 8 : 8 ; 3 John 13. b Ezek. 9 : 2, 11. c j er . ;jg : 18, 23. 



8 Job 19: 24; Jer. 17:1. *Ps.45:l; 
J Ex. 2 :8; Job 8 : 11 ; lsa. 18 : 2 ; 35 : 7. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 151 

Insignificant fragments of papyrus-paper, inscribed with Phoenician 
characters, have been found, but none with the ancient Hebrew. The 
first actual mention of this material in the Bible is in 2 John 12 ; 
but there is no good reason, save lack of sufficient occasion, why it 
should not have been noticed in the Old Testament. 

It is still matter of discussion whether the Hebrews wrote on the 
prepared skins of animals. Most authorities hold that they did ; 
but there are very good ones who regard it as at least doubtful. 
There is no direct evidence that the Egyptians used this material. 
It can only be said with certainty, at present, that there are some 
passages of Scripture where leather as a material for books seems to 
be most naturally implied. 1 It is urged by some that in the passage 
from Jeremiah, it is unlikely that the king would have thrown any 
considerable amount of leather on an open fire in his own apartments. 
But considering his angry mood and what he actually did, it is hard 
to say without positive knowledge what he would or would not do. 

Parchment, which is claimed to have been a discovery of the time 
of the Ptolemies, is spoken of in the Bible only in the New Testa- 
ment. 2 As is well known, the early form of books was that of the 
roll. The papyrus or parchment having been cut into long strips 
and written over on one side w r as nicely fastened together, and then 
rolled up as maps are often rolled at the present day. Doubtless en- 
graving on wood, stone and the metals was well understood by the He- 
brews. The only recorded instance in the canonical books of contin- 
uous writing on stone, excepting the Decalogue, is in Joshua 8 : 32. 3 

35. Hebrew Poetry. — Of the three kinds of poetry cultivated 
by the ancients, — lyric, epic and dramatic, — the Hebrews gave little 
attention to any but the first. But to these three another species 
of poetic composition, for w T hich the Hebrews had a special liking, 
should be added — the gnomic. Gnomic poetry was in its bloom 
shortly after the time of David. Another common name for it is 
didactic poetry. It is a kind of philosophy of human life, presented 
in its results rather than in its processes, and in a poetic form. 
The books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes are marked examples of 
this kind of composition, as are also the books of Ecclesiasticus and 
Wisdom among the Apocrypha of the Old Testament. The nearest 
approach to anything like dramatic poetry in the Bible is in the 
Canticles and the book of Job ; but neither represents much more 
than a simple dialogue in which a number of persons participate. 

36. Scholars, unfortunately, have not yet, arrived at fixed or 

i Num. 5 : 23 ; Jer. 36 : 23. 22 Tim. 4 : 13. » See Deut. 27 : 4, 8 ; Job 19 : 24 ; 1 Mace. 8 : 22. 



152 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

generally satisfactory conclusions respecting the peculiar style and 
form of Hebrew poetry. It is pretty well established, however, 
that rhyme and metre, both common in sister dialects, were un- 
known to it. What have been represented as examples of rhyme 
are examples rather of simple assonance ; and the most recent 
attempts to reduce Hebrew poetry to a metrical system have only 
succeeded in making something else of it than Hebrew, the results 
attained being dependent on the rejection of the present rules of 
Hebrew accentuation. Takiug Hebrew poetry as we find it, it may 
be said that the matter is broken up into lines and strophes, the 
latter being composed of several of the former. A still more strik- 
ing feature of it is what is known as parallelism. Attention was 
first called to this characteristic by Lowth in 1787. The subject 
was further developed by Herder and others. Parallelism con- 
sists in recalling in some way, in a second or third member, one or 
both, the thought expressed in the first, before passing on to a new 
one. Lowth recognized three species of parallelism — synonymous, 
antithetic and synthetic. To these others have been added, as the 
syntactic and the introverted. All these forms, more or less inter- 
changed and modified, may be found in a single poem. 

37. In addition to this peculiar structure of Hebrew poetry, it 
was no doubt intended to be highly rhythmical. In not a few 
instances the rhythmical movement may still be easily recognized, 
even in the English version. Whether it will ever be possible to 
discover the actual literary principles underlying the poetry of the 
Bible is questionable. Such a result would seem to demand an 
acquaintance with the original pronunciation of Hebrew words. 
And here it is significant that the later Hebrew scholars who have 
affixed the accents to the original text have accentuated as poetry 
only the books of Job, Proverbs and the Psalms. It also requires 
the supposition that the Hebrews had an elaborated system of poetic 
composition, with fixed principles to which they more or less rigidly 
conformed — a matter which still lies wholly in the realm of hypoth- 
esis. Besides the device of assonance, already noticed, and of allit- 
eration, Hebrew poets also understood the use of the acrostic arrange- 
ment. Quite a number of psalms in our collection are acrostic, 
besides Proverbs 31 : 16-31 and all of the Lamentations of Jeremiah 
except the last. 1 Poets also adopted a peculiar literary style, making 
special use of archaic words and forms, particularly those having 
fullness of tone and sonorousness. 

i Ps. 9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119, 1 15. 





Ancient Egyptian Bellows 




Roll or Book of the Law, 
rolled up. 



Modern Egyptian Potter. 




Ancient Brick Vault, at Mugheir. Arched Drain, S. E. Palace, Ninirud. (Layard.) 



154 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

38. The Medical Art. — Efforts to heal the sick naturally reach 
back to the remotest antiquity. The fact that the Israelites looked 
upon disease and death as a direct infliction from God did not hinder 
them from doing what they could to stay their ravages. That master 
of the gnomic wisdom of his time, the son of Sirach, puts the matter 
correctly when he says, " Honor, with reference to thy needs, a phy- 
sician with the honor due unto him, ... for the Lord hath created 
him." 1 The frequent symbolical use in the earliest books of the 
Bible of the processes of physical healing shows how important it 
had already come to be regarded. 2 An instance of the superstitious 
use of plant-life as a medicament is found in the history of Rachel 
and Leah. 3 Midwifery also was recognized as a special occupation 
•in patriarchal times. 4 The names of two patriotic and God-fearing 
women of this class are found in connection with the history of Israel 
in Egypt. 5 An ordinance of the Mosaic law enjoined that a person 
wounded in a brawl should be surgically treated at the expense of 
him who gave the wound. 6 Circumcision itself was really an oper- 
ation in surgery, rough as, in some instances, the instruments were. 7 

So early a knowledge of this subject on the part of Israel need 
not surprise us if we remember that already before the exodus phy- 
sicians formed a distinct profession in Egypt. Outside of the Bible 
there is ample documentary evidence not only that physicians 
abounded there, but physicians of almost every sort, not excepting 
oculists and dentists. The w T ord chemistry is derived from chemi 
(Gr., chemeia), which is an old name for the land of Egypt. When 
King Asa, afflicted with a disease of the feet, is blamed for seeking 
not " unto the Lord, but unto the physicians," evidently no dispar- 
agement of the profession of medicine is intended. 8 He is blamed 
simply for depending on physicians rather than on God. He did 
not look to God for his blessing on the means used. King Hezekiah 
was medically treated by direct command of a prophet of the Lord. 9 

It is needless to say that, compared with its modern development, 
the medical art never got beyond the period of infancy in Bible 
times. The work of the earlier physicians was mostly surgical, — 
that is, it consisted in applying remedies to outward injuries. The 
treatment of wounds is referred to in a number of passages. 10 After 
the exile the practice of medicine became more general ; and it is a 
pathetic record that we have in the Gospel of a woman with a bloody 

i Ecclus. 38 : 1, 2. 2 Job 13: 4; Jer. 17 : 14. » Gen. 30:14. * Gen. 85:17; 88 : 28. G Ex. 
1:15. ° Ex. 21:19. * Ex. 4: 25. 8 2 Chron. 16: 12. 9 2 Kings 20 : 7; Isa. 38: 21. 

io 2 Kings 8 : 29 ; Isa. 1:6; Jer. 8 : 1 1 ; 51 : 8 ; Ezok. 30 : 21 ; Luke 10 : 34. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 155 

flux, who had " suffered many things of many physicians, and had 
spent all that she had." l Quacks were not unknown even in the earli- 
est times ; but the profession as such always stood in high honor. 2 It is 
worthy of note that the writer of one of the gospels and of the Acts was 
a " beloved physician." 3 In the times of our Lord the services of the 
profession were much required at the temple, the duties of the priests 
and others there exposing them to certain peculiar physical ailments. 

39. The Mechanic Arts. — As preparing it for an independent \ 
national life in Canaan, Egypt was in many respects an admirable 
school for Israel. If it had been of the same race or the same relig- 
ion, there might have been too great an assimilation, possibly even 
an absorption of the weaker in the stronger. As it was, Israel was 
able to learn what it most needed to know, while retaining its 
national peculiarities and above all its historic faith. Not alone 
agriculture, but the mechanic arts, had reached in Egypt at this 
time a high degree of development. The Israelites on settling in 
Canaan not only did not attain to its standard in this particular, 
but fell far below it. Their wanderings in the wilderness, and the 
wars of the conquest that followed, were no doubt a wise providential 
discipline, but they w T ere a great hindrance to progress in the me- 
chanic and useful arts. Besides, their apostasy from God, which soon 
followed, and their consequent tribal jealousies and conflicts, left 
them in no condition for such progress in the arts of civilized life. 

It is a sorry picture which the historian draw T s of the times pre- 
ceding the activity of Samuel: "Now there was no smith found 
throughout all the land of Israel : . . . but all the Israelites went 
down to the Philistines, to sharpen every man his share, and his 
coulter, and his axe, and his mattock ; yet they had a file for the 
mattocks, and for the coulters, and for the forks, and for the axes ; 
and to set the goads."* With the harmony and prosperity that 
came with David's reign, especially with the building of Solomon's 
temple and the introduction of skilled labor and its products from 
without the bounds of Israel, the mechanic arts began at length to 
flourish. Still, the Israelites were never much devoted to them in 
the early times. Agriculture and the rearing of cattle were their 
favorite pursuits. Subsequent to the exile, however, the force of 
circumstances compelled them to engage so generally in the other 
occupations of civilized life that the rabbis held it to be one of the 
signs of a neglected education if a person had not learned in youth 
some useful trade. 

J Mark 5 : 26 ; Luke 8 : 43. 2 Job 13 : 4. 3 Col. 4 : 14. * 1 Sam. 13 : 19-21. 



156 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 



40. Of the artisan classes, those working in wood and metals were 
always, perhaps, the most numerous in Israel. Among the former 
were carpenters, cabinet-makers, wood-carvers, manufacturers of 
wagons, of baskets, of various household utensils including the dis- 
taff and the loom, and of the tools used in agriculture, such as 
ploughs, yokes, threshing-machines, goads and winnowing-shovels. 1 
The tools incidentally mentioned in the Bible as in use among 
workers in wood are the hammer, saw, different kinds of axes, the 
measuring-line, the draughting-pencil, the 
compasses and the plane. 2 Like the Egyp- 
tians, their neighbors and predecessors in 
civilization, the Hebrews doubtless under- 
stood also the use of the awl, drill, mallet, 
chisel and many other similar instruments. 
41. Metals. — The principal metals of 
modern times were well known to them. 
Even the antediluvians are represented as 
skilled in metallurgy, Tubal-caiu (that is, 
"Tubal the smith") being "the forger of 
every cutting instrument of brass and iron." 3 
After the flood the patriarch Abraham is 
represented as rich not only in cattle, but in 
gold and silver. 4 Tin and lead also are both 
mentioned in the Pentateuch. 5 The Hebrew word rendered "steel" 
in a number of passages in the common version has been translated 
" brass" by the revisers. 6 Brass is properly an alloy of copper and 
zinc ; while bronze is an alloy of the same material with tin, a small 
proportion of zinc being sometimes added. That the process of 
hardening copper by such additions was understood by the ancients 
is undoubted. The distinction between bronze and iron weapons, 
as indicated by their color, is plainly shown on the monuments of 
Egypt. But it is not always possible to say with certainty whether 
the material called " brass " in the revised English version resem- 
bled most what is now known as brass, or bronze, or copper, — the 
same uncertainty attaching to the original Hebrew word as to the 
Latin aes and the Greek chalkos. That it was quite a different 
article from steel is clear. The Hebrew word chasmal, rendered 
" amber" in Ezekiel 1 : 4, 27 ; 8:2, seems also to have been a com- 




Babylonian Saw and Axe. 
{From the Cylinders.) 



l Ex. 35 : 33 ; 37 : 1, 10, 15, 25 ; Dent. 26 : 2, 4 ; Judg. C, : 1!) ; 1 Sum. : 1-1 ; 2 Sam. 24 : 22 ; 1 
Kings 19 : 21 ; Jer. 28 : 13. 2 Deut. 19:5; Ps. 7 1 : 5, 6 ; [sa. 10 : 15 ; 44 : 13. a Gen. 4 : 22. 

4 Gen. 13 : 2. & Ex. 15 : 10 ; Num. 31 : 22. 6 2 Sam. 22 : 35 ; Job 20 : 24 ; Ps. 13 : 34 ; Jer. 15 : 12. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 157 

posite brilliant metal of a quality similar to brass. 1 Whether the 
" iron from the north " spoken of in Jeremiah 15 : 12 was not a 
hardened iron answering somewhat to modern steel is still a question. 2 

Gold and silver were not native in Palestine. 3 The same is true 
of tin and lead ; but iron and copper were both mined there.* An 
interesting and instructive passage in the book of Job shows that 
the methods used in mining were much the same then as now. 5 
There are still to be found mines on the Sinaitic peninsula which, 
as it is supposed, were worked by the Egyptians before the days of 
Moses. The remains of smelting-furnaces, hammers of porphyry, 
reservoirs for water, and even the piers and wharves on the adjacent 
coast whence the ore was shipped, are still visible. There is abun- 
dant evidence that the process of separating metals from their alloys 
was to some degree early understood. 6 In two passages of Scrip- 
ture, mineral soda, or natron, is mentioned in a way to indicate a 
knowledge of its chemical qualities. 7 

42. Workers in Metals. — Those employed with metals who 
are specially referred to in the Bible are gold and silversmiths and 
workers in brass and iron. 8 Some of the tools of which they made 
use were the anvil, the bellows, the smelting-furnace and " fining- 
pot," the hammer and tongs. 9 Among the various products of their 
labor which are referred to are settings for precious stones and nu- 
merous other articles used for ornamentation, gilding, axes, sickles, 
knives, swords, spear-h^ads, fetters, chains, bolts, nails, hooks, pen- 
stocks, pans for cooking purposes, ploughshares, and the Avheels of 
threshing-instruments. 10 It would appear that in the earlier periods 
copper or bronze was offcener used in the manufacture of these arti- 
cles than iron. The weapons of Goliath, for example, as also those 
of Samson, were of the former material; 11 and it is worthy of atten- 
tion, as bearing on some questions of the higher criticism, that rel- 
atively a much larger amount of copper was used in building and 
furnishing the tabernacle than the temple. This might have been 
expected if the account of the tabernacle be genuine and authentic ; 
but it is out of harmony with the theory that the tabernacle is a 
product of the imagination — simply a purposed reflection of the 
temple backward into a mythical period. 

1 Cf. Rev. 1:15; 2:18. 2 cf. Nah. 2 : 3. 3 1 Kings 9 : 11 ; 10 : 22 ; 22 : 48. 4 Deut 8 • 9 
5 Job 28 : 1-11. 6 i Chron. 29 : 4 ; Ps. 12 : 6 ; Prov. 8 : 19 ; 10 : 20. 1 p r0V- 2 5 : 20 ; Jer. 2 : 22. 

8 Judg. 17 : 4 ; 1 Kings 7:15; 2 Chron. 24 : 12 ; Isa. 41 : 7 ; Mai. 3:2; Acts 19 : 24 ; 2 Tim. 4 • 14 

9 Ex. 39 : 3 ; Prov. 17 : 3 ; Isa. 6:6; Jer. 6 : 29 ; Ezek. 22 : 18. w Num. 35 : 16 ; 1 Sam. 13 • 20 : 
17:7; 2 Sam. 12:31; Job 19:24; Ps. 105:18; 107:16; Isa. 45:2; Jer. 17:1; Ezek 43- 
Amos 1:3; Acts 12 : 10. « Judg. 16 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 5. 



158 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 




Ancient Roman Loom. 



Assyrian Brick inscribed with 

Shalmaneser's Name and 

Title. 





Ancient Spindles. {From Specimens in British and Berlin 
3fuseums.) 
Loop to place over the thread ; basket-work spindle ; wood spindle ; 
spindle with head of gypsum ; spindle of split cane. 



Glass Bottle inscribed with the 

Name of Tliotbrnes III. 

{After Wilkinson.) 




Ancient Egyptian Glass Bottles. (After Wilkinson.) 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 159 

43. Other Artisans. — Mention is made in the Bible also of 
stone-masons — who are at the same time plasterers — of brick and 
tile-makers, engravers, apothecaries, perfumers, bakers, tanners, 
fullers, spinners, weavers and potters. 1 The business of the fuller 
included that of fulling, that is, thickening, shrinking the cloth, as 
well as cleansing it. 2 He had no machine for the purpose, but as 
the Hebrew word for his name indicates ("the treader") he made a 
vigorous use of his hands and feet. Weaving was mostly done by 
women. 3 Looms of a very primitive type are still seen in the East, 
to some extent, although machines superior to them were introduced 
in Egypt two centuries before the exodus. When Job says, " My 
days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle," he cannot refer to the old 
method of supplying the filling for the web by the fingers, or by a 
rod armed with hooks. 4 The potter's trade is often alluded to, 
especially by the prophets. The Israelites had doubtless been 
acquainted with it in Egypt. The clay was first trodden with the 
feet. It was then shaped by the potter by the use of wheels, which 
were sometimes turned with the foot. The process of glazing was 
also early understood. 5 After being smoothed and glazed the vessel 
was hardened in a furnace. In Jeremiah 48 : 12 there is a peculiar 
class of laborers referred to. They were those who tilted casks or 
other vessels for the sake of emptying them of their contents. 

44. While there seems to have been nothing in antiquity precisely 
corresponding to the modern association of the trades into guilds 
or orders, for mutual protection and advantage, there is evident a 
tendency to local association. Certain parts of a city, sometimes 
whole streets, received their names from the character of the busi- 
ness carried on there. 6 Some of the trades, as, for example, that of 
the tanner and the fuller, were looked upon with less public favor 
than others, and could be pursued only in the suburbs. A well- 
known proverb of the Talmud voiced this popular sentiment: 
" The world cannot exist either without the perfumer or the tanner. 
Happy is the perfumer, and woe to him whose calling is that of a 
tanner." Josephus mentions a valley in the neighborhood of Jeru- 
salem called the " valley of the cheesemongers." 7 

45. The honor put upon skilled labor, and in fact upon manual 
labor of all sorts, in the Bible, is specially noteworthy. Of Oholiab 

i Ex. 5:8; 31 : 5 ; 35 : 33 ; 2 Kings 18 : 17 ; 1 Chron. 4 : 23 ; Prov. 31 : 13, 19, 22 ; Isa. 7 : 3, 20 ; 
29 : 16 ; 36 : 2 ; 41 : 25 ; Jer. 2 : 22 ; 17:1; Ezek. 5:1; 13 : 11 ; Hos. 7 : 4, 6 ; Nab. 3 : 14 ; Mai. 3:2; 
Acts 10: 6. 2 cf. Matt. 9:16; Mark 2: 21. 3 1 Sara. 2 : 19; Prov. 31 : 22, 24. * Job 7 : 6. 
5 Prov. 26 : 23 ; Ecclus. 38 : 29, 30. 6 1 Kings 20 : 34 ; 2 Kings 18 : 17 ; 1 Cbron. 4 : 14 ; Jer. 37 : 21. 
i Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 5, 4 : 1. 



160 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 




Dressing and Working in Flax. ( After Wilkinson.) 




The Nilometer. 

For measuring the height of the river Nile 



Brazier for binning Charcoal. 



SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. 



161 



and Bezaleel, for example, it is represented that they were divinely 
endowed with "wisdom of heart" to do what they did. 1 Physical 
toil was never regarded among the Hebrews, as it was among the 
Greeks and Romans, as in any sense degrading. Saul and David 
in early life were both day-laborers. Elisha was taken from the 
plough to become the follower and successor of Elijah. 2 The 
prophet Amos was "a herdman and a dresser of sycomore trees." 3 
It is meant for high praise of a faithful wife and mother when it is 
said that " she riseth also while it is yet night, and giveth meat to 
her household." 4 

Even such philosophers as Aristotle and Plato taught that manual 
labor was unworthy of a free man, and that the state should never 
give the right of citizenship to an artisan. How unlike is this to 
the spirit that rules in the book of Proverbs : " Seest thou a man dili- 
gent (skillful) in his business? he shall stand before kings." 5 The 
same principles prevailed among the Jews of our Lord's time and 
still later. A certain Phineas is spoken of who was busy with his 
work as a mason when word was brought to him that he had been 
chosen to the high priesthood. It was in strict harmony with the 
sentiments of his countrymen and the customs of his time, therefore, 
for Paul, scholar and orator though he was, to engage, as opportunity 
offered or circumstances required, in the trade of making tent-cloth, 
wliich In his youth he had learned. But a still higher honor is it to 
handicraft that the Redeemer of the world was not only the son of 
a carpenter, but, as we have reason to believe, himself worked at 
that trade in the humble shop at Nazareth. 

i Ex. 3G : 1. 2 i Kings 19 : 19. 3 Amos 7 : 



4 Prov. 31 : 15. 



Prov. 22 : 29. 




Embalming, Making the Cases and Bandaging Mumin 






Fig. 1, sawing wood; a. timber fastened to a stand. 2, cutting the leg of a chair, on a stand, & indicating the 
trade of a carpenter. 3, a man fallen asleep, c. c. wood ready for cuttins. d. ouions and other provisions, which 
occur aaain at g, with vases. /. /. 4. 5 and 7, binding mummies. 6, bringing the bandages. 9, using the drill. 
8, 10 and 11, painting and polishing the cases, e, A, i, mummy-eases. 

II 



CHAPTER VII. 

TRADE AND COMMERCE. 

1. The Hebrew words used for trader show that, among the 
Israelites, he was originally a travelling salesman. 1 These words, 
however, do not exclude the idea of a place where trade was carried 
on. 2 The principal one of them is still current among the German 
Jews of Europe in the form schacher, that is, traffic. Trade in some 
form undoubtedly goes back to the beginnings of human history. 
Life in cities was only possible as the necessaries were supplied from 
the surrounding country. There is evidence that even in the patri- 
archal period there was not only a limited domestic trade carried 
on, but that it had assumed an international character. Gold and 
silver were known both in the form of ornaments and of money, and 
were freely circulated. 3 " Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, 
which he had named in the audience of the children of Heth, four 
hundred shekels of silver, current money with the merchant." 4 
Somewhat later we read of a caravan made up of Ishmaelite and 
Midianite merchants going down into Egypt with such articles as 
spicery, balm and myrrh. It appeared also that they were not averse 
to trading in slaves. To them Joseph was sold by his hard-hearted 
brethren. 5 Still later, in a period of scarcity, we learn of the im- 
portation of grain into Canaan from Egypt and of its being paid for 
with silver pieces which were weighed. 6 

2. Palestine Unsuited to Commerce. — Geographically, Pales- 
tine would seem to have offered the most natural highway to connect 
the renowned and opulent nations bordering on the Euphrates with 
those inhabiting Egypt and Arabia. As a matter of fact, however, 
owing to its peculiar situation and its physical features, there was 
little opportunity for the Israelites to become, like their Phoenician 
neighbors, a great commercial people. It lacked sea-coast. The 
course and nature of its principal river were unfavorable. It was 
traversed by high mountain chains ; and to the east and south lay 
an almost impassable desert. Undoubtedly this state of things was 

i Gen. 23 : 1G ; 37 : 28 ; 1 Kings 10 : 28 ; Prov. 31 : 14 ; Ezek. 27 : 12, 15. 2 Isa. 23 : 18 ; cf. 

" Racal " (= traGcking), 1 Sam. 30 : 29. » Geu. 13 : 2 ; 20 : 1G ; 24 : 22, 53. * Gen. 23 : 16. 

6 Gen. 37 : 25; 39 : 1. 6 Geu. 42; 1, 2. 

162 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 163 

providentially intended. It was morally necessary that while hold- 
ing a central position relative to the great nations of the earth, the 
holy land should also, for a time — that is, until salvation had been 
duly prepared for the race — be in a degree secluded from them. 
Opportunity was thus given for maturing undisturbed the germ 
whose fruit was to be offered to all mankind. 

The needed seclusion was provided for not alone in their land but 
also in the institutions of the chosen people. The Mosaic laws are 
based largely on the supposition that the Israelites are, and will re- 
main, agriculturists. In so far, too, these laws have the peculiar 
stamp of the Mosaic period when grazing and agriculture were their 
almost exclusive occupations. And while, in letter, the law recog- 
nizes the legitimacy of trade and offers rules for its regulation, its 
spirit indisputably favors the cultivation of the soil and the utmost 
restriction of foreign intercourse. 1 The prophetical books face in 
the same direction. Isaiah calls on the " house of Jacob " to come 
and walk in the light of the Lord. " For," he says, addressing 
Jehovah, " thou hast forsaken thy people the house of Jacob, be- 
cause they be filled with customs from the east, . . . and they strike 
hands with the children of strangers." 2 

3. Trade of Israel under the Kings. — Previous to the time 
of David the trade of the Israelites was mostly confined to the ex- 
change of the products of their own country among themselves. 
Caravans were only occasionally made up for adjacent lands, espec- 
ially Phoenicia, Syria and Egypt. Even this limited foreign trade 
was carried on mostly by foreign merchants. The extension of the 
bounds of the kingdom by David's conquests and the great increase 
in its wealth furnished both the occasion and the means for an 
enlarged commerce with other nations. In the time of Solomon 
it reached its highest stage. His ships, built and manned mostly by 
Phoenicians, sailed to the remotest lands then known, and brought 
back their products to enrich his capital. There were exported 
grain, balsam, nuts, spices, ship-timber, skins, wool and flax. There 
were brought back in exchange for them and for money, among 
other things, the various metals, in a crude state and in the form of 
ornaments and useful vessels, the rarer woods and spices, precious 
stones, ivory, peacocks and apes. 3 

Nor was this commerce carried on simply from Phoenician ports. 
Every three years the conjoined fleets of Hiram and Solomon sailed 

i Lev. 19 : 35 ; 25 : 36, 37 ; Dent. 17 : 16, 17 ; 25 : 13-16 ; 28 : 12. 2 i sa . 2 : 6, 7 ; Nah. 3 : 4. 

8 Gen. 37:25; 43:11; 1 Kings 5 : 11 ; 2 Chron. 8 : 17, 18; 9 : 10; 27 : 5; Ezek. 27 : 6, 17. 



164 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

from Eloth and Ezion-geber, harbors on the Red Sea which had 
been secured through the power of David. These fleets visited for 
purposes of trade the principal countries bordering on the Indian 
Ocean and the Persian Gulf. 1 During the reign of Solomon, too, 
horses began to be imported on a large scale from Egypt, although 
in direct contravention of a Mosaic statute. 2 His marriage with an 
Egyptian princess opened the way not only for this innovation, but 
for many another breach of national custom and law. A reference 
to the "king's merchants" gives color to the theory that there was 
a sort of royal trading-company formed at this time with special 
reference to trade with foreign countries; 3 and from one passage it 
would appear that some kind of a tax was laid on this foreign trade 
for the benefit of the public revenue. 4 The natural effects of such 
free intercourse with foreigners were not slow in coming. Crowds 
of Gentiles flocked to Jerusalem not only with their wares, but with 
their heathenish tastes and customs. The frequent references in the 
book of Proverbs to the " strange women " are very suggestive as it 
respects the state of morals that then existed. In one place it is dis- 
tinctly stated that it is the wife of a foreign merchant who, as a 
harlot, lies in wait " at every corner." 5 

The division of the kingdom, with the internal strife and external 
oppression and robbery brought about by it, naturally put an end to 
any considerable foreign trade among the Israelites, as well as to the 
former wide-spread prosperity of the people. Still the prophetical 
books bear witness to the fact that notwithstanding expensive wars 
and heavy tributes paid to heathen princes there remained no incon- 
siderable amount of luxury among certain classes. 6 It is said of 
Jehoshaphat that he made "ships of Tarshish to go to Ophir for 
gold : but they went not ; for the ships were broken at Ezion-geber." 7 
Phoenicia was still supplied with such natural products as wheat, 
oil and honey in exchange for skilled labor and its fruits. Even 
the impoverished exiles from Babylon found means for paying it in 
provisions or money for the timber needed to build the second temple, 
and for the fish with which it provided their scanty market. 8 But 
the trade that was carried on was relatively unimportant, and passed 
principally through the hands of others than Israelites. 

Phoenician traders, especially, traversed the country as peddlers and 
also erected markets for their wares in the principal towns. It was 

11 Kings 9: 26. 2 Deut. 17: 16. 3 1 Kings 10: 28, 29; 2 Chron. 1 : 16. * 1 Kings 10: 15. 
6 Prov. 7 : 8-20. 8 Isa. 3 : 18-25 ; Ezek. 26 : 2 ; Hos. 12:7; Amos 2 : 6 ; 8 : 5 ; Mic. 6 : 10. 

i 1 Kings 22 : 48. 8 i Kings 5:11; Ezra 3:7; Noh. 13 : 16. 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 165 

to them that the " virtuous woman " of the Proverbs is represented 
as selling her " fine linen" and " girdles." 1 The feasts in Jerusalem 
offered to them a rich harvest. The very name " merchant" became 
finally synonymous with Canaanite. 2 In Nehemiah's time these 
traders were so numerous and so defiant of Hebrew customs that he 
was obliged to resort to harsh measures against them. 3 At a still 
later period, after the Israelites became dispersed among other peo- 
ples, especially in Egypt, they themselves became to no inconsider- 
able extent the middle-men of commerce. Yet it was productive 
of little change among the inhabitants of Palestine. In the brief 
space of national independence under the Maccabees some efforts 
were made to restore Israel's commercial prosperity, but without 
lasting results. 4 The attempts of Herod in the same direction con- 
tributed principally to the prosperity of Greek and Koman traders. 5 
In fact, the Israelites were always disinclined to come into any closer 
contact with foreigners than was absolutely necessary. The apostle 
Peter sets forth in the Acts what was their habitual practice : " Ye 
yourselves know how that it is an unlawful thing for a man that is 
a Jew to join himself or come unto one of another nation." 6 And 
Josephus writes to the same effect in his work against Apion : " We 
neither inhabit a maritime country, nor do we delight in merchan- 
dise, nor in such a mixture with other men as arises from it." 7 

4. Trade after the Time of Christ. — Subsequent to the 
time of our Lord, the circumstances of the people having greatly 
changed, " their views as to commerce also underwent a slow process 
of modification, the main object now being to restrict such occupa- 
tions, and especially to regulate them in accordance with religion. 
Inspectorships of weights and measures are of comparatively late 
date in our own country. The rabbis in this, as in many other 
matters, were long before us. They appointed regular inspectors 
whose duty it was to go from market to market, and more than that, 
fix the current market prices. The prices for produce were ulti- 
mately determined by each community. Few r merchants would sub- 
mit to interference with what is called the law of supply and demand. 
But the talmudical laAVs against buying up grain and withdrawing 
it from sale, especially at a time of scarcity, are exceedingly strict. 
Similarly, it was prohibited artificially to raise prices, especially of 
produce. . . . Cheating was declared to involve heavier punishment 
than a breach of some of the other moral commandments. For the 

1 Prov. 31 : 24. n - Prov. 31 : 24 (margin of Revised Version). 3 ^eh. 10 : 31 ; 13 : 16-22. 
4 1 Mace. 14 : 5. 5 Josephus, Anliq. 15, 9:6. 6 Acts 10 : 2S. 7 Josephus ; c. Apion 1 : 12. 



166 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

latter, it was argued, might be set right by repentance. But he who 
cheated took in not merely one or several persons, but every one ; 
and how could that ever be set right!" 1 

5. Roads in Palestine. — Koads in the East at the present day, 
even those most travelled, are extremely poor. Excepting the period 
of Greek and Roman occupation, there have been but few roads 
artificially made in Palestine at any time. Traces of those of the 
Romans are still to be seen, especially on the east of the Jordan. 
The Old Testament contains no reference to bridges, although the 
idea is not foreign to the Hebrew language, being contained in the 
proper name Geshur. 2 There is but one passage that speaks of a 
conveyance for passengers across a stream. 3 The usual method of 
crossing the Jordan, the principal stream of Palestine, was by ford- 
ing. This was not difficult during most seasons of the year. The 
Hebrew language contains a number of terms for roads, including, 
with that for the simple foot-path, others suggesting no little care in 
their construction. Such roads must have existed in the very earliest 
times, being absolutely necessary for the passage of armies and cara- 
vans, as well as for that commercial intercourse of which we have 
knowledge. One of these expressions, mesillah, found in several 
passages, represents an elevated road answering to the modern " high- 
way." 4 It is used as an illustration by the prophet Isaiah in his 
notable prediction concerning John the Baptist. 5 In the construc- 
tion of such roads deep places were filled up, hills levelled and rough 
places made smooth, so that journeying on them should be as un- 
impeded as possible. 

That the idea of road-building was not foreign even to the Mosaic 
period is shown by the instructions given in the Pentateuch respect- 
ing the roads leading to the cities of refuge. 6 And when the Israel- 
ites seek permission of the Edomites to cross their land they prom- 
ise that they will not pass through field or through vineyard, but 
will go along the " king's high way." 7 A road built by the govern- 
ment seems to be meant, and toll was sometimes demanded from those 
making use of it. 8 The same conclusion is reached respecting the 
early existence of tolerable roads if we consider the numerous bib- 
lical passages referring to the use of chariots of war and other ve- 
hicles. 9 It is not to be supposed, however, that wheeled carriages 
for ordinary travelling were in use in Palestine before the times of 

i See Edcrsheim, Sketches of Jewish Social Life, p. 206. 2 o Sam. 3:3. 3 o s a m. 19 : IS. 

4 Num. 20 : 19 ; Judg. 20 : 31 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 12 ; 2 Sam. 20 : 12. 6 Isa. 40 : 3. « Deut. 19 : 8. 

i Num. 20 : 17, 19. 8 Ezra 4 : 13, 20 ; 7 : 24. » Gen. 45 : 19 ; 50 : 9 ; Judg. 4 : 13. 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 167 

David. There are infrequent allusions to them at a later period. 1 
It is likely that commercial reasons, if no other, would have led 
Solomon to make the means of communication throughout his king- 
dom as abundant and easy as possible. If we may trust Josephus 
here, this king had the roads leading to Jerusalem paved with black 
stone, probably the basalt found near the Sea of Tiberias. 2 Not far 
from this time there are certain traces of the erection of khans for 
the convenience of travellers in otherwise uninhabited wastes. 3 

Somewhat later there were four great public roads made use of 
by the military powers and by the traffic of the world which passed 
along the four sides of the holy land. In the south was one ex- 
tending from Gaza, by way of Petra and Duma, to the Persian Gulf. 
On the west was the great thoroughfare along the coast of the Med- 
iterranean connecting Egypt with Phoenicia and Syria. On the 
north lay the route from the Phoenician ports of Tyre and Sidon, 
running across Lebanon to Damascus, Palmyra and on to the 
Euphrates. Along the east border stretched the road from Damas- 
cus to the iElanitic Gulf and the peninsula of Arabia, skirting in 
its course the western part of the great Syrian desert. 

In the time of our Lord there were six main arteries of commerce 
and general intercourse traversing frhe country within, " the chief 
objective points being Csesarea the military, and Jerusalem the 
religious, capital. First, there was the southern road, which led 
from Jerusalem, by Bethlehem, to Hebron and thence westward to 
Gaza and eastward into Arabia." 4 Second, there w r as the main 
road just described, running along the sea shore from Egypt to 
Tyre, with which Jerusalem was connected by a branch diverging 
at Lydda. Paul, it is likely, escorted by Roman soldiers, travelled 
by this route to Csesarea, a little more than seventy miles from 
Jerusalem. 5 A third road led from Jerusalem to Joppa by way 
of Beth-horon and Lydda. A fourth great highway of Palestine 
at this date was one leading from Galilee to Jerusalem through 
Samaria. 6 At Sichem it intersected another running from Csesarea 
to Damascus. It was on the former of these roads, it will be remem- 
bered, that our Lord was when, while resting by Jacob's well at 
Sichem, he had the notable conversation with the woman of Sama- 
ria. 7 A fifth road, extending north from Jerusalem, was by the 
way of Bethany to Jericho, thence across the Jordan into Peraea, 

1 1 Kings 12 : 18 ; Acts 8 : 28. 2 Josephus, Antiq. 8, 7 : 4. 3 j er . 41 : 17 (margin). * Eder- 
sheim, Sketches of Jewish Social Life, p. 42. 5 Acts 23 : 31, 32. c j hn 4 : 4, 45 ; cf. Luke 9 : 53. 
7 John 4 : 6. 



168 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

and thence again across the Jordan at Decapolis into Galilee. 1 It 
was the road ordinarily travelled by Jews who wished to avoid 
Samaria. The last principal line of internal communication in 
Palestine at this period was one which passed directly through Gal- 
ilee, and was the main thoroughfare between the east and the west. 
Its eastern terminus was Damascus. In Galilee it passed through 
such familiar places as Capernaum, Tiberias, Nain, Nazareth, and 
terminated at Ptolemais on the sea coast. 

6. Travelling. — The Bible speaks of journeys of all sorts and 
for almost every purpose. Travelling by sea is the most seldom 
mentioned. 2 The long journey which Abraham took with his fam- 
ily from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran and from Haran to Canaan 
is among the earliest recorded facts of history. 3 The hardships and 
perils to which one was exposed in travelling even in the more civil- 
ized times of the apostle Paul are fully set forth by him in one of 
his epistles. 4 Thrice he had suffered shipwreck ; a day and a night 
he had been in the deep ; he had been in perils of rivers, in perils 
of robbers, in labor and travail, in watchings often, in hunger and 
thirst, in fastings often, in cold and nakedness. Losing one's way 
and getting out of provisions was by no means the most serious peril 
to which a traveller was exposed. Unless protected by a numerous 
guard, he was pretty generally at the mercy of roving freebooters. 
Even the large company of exiles returning from Babylon were not 
without their fears lest they might be assailed and overpowered by 
bands of robbers. 5 

Journeys by land w^re commonly made on foot. 6 If an animal 
was used for riding, it was generally the ass. After the period 
of the kings, horses were ridden in war, but not on ordinary jour- 
neys. 7 The camel was sometimes so used, but mostly served as a 
beast of burden. 8 The yearly pilgrimages of the people to the feasts 
at Jerusalem were, as it would seem, universally made on foot, large 
numbers banding together both for the sake of protection and with a 
view to social intercourse. 9 

7. Wagons. — As already intimated, wagons for purposes of 
travel — that is, for the carriage of persons — were very little used 
by the Israelites, although known to them and not uncommon in 
Egypt in the time of the patriarchs. 10 In the tenth century B.C., 
King Rehoboam is described on one occasion as fleeing in a char- 

l Matt. 20 : 17, 29 ; Luke 10 : 30 ; 19 : 1, 28. 2 1 Kings 10 : 11, 22 ; Ps. 107 : 23 ; Jonah 1 : 3. 

» Gen. 11:31; 12:4, 5. 4 2 Cor. 11 : 25. 5 Ezra 8 : 22, 31 ; cf. Neh. 2 : fi, 9. « Gen. 29:1 

(margin) ; Isa. 52 : 7 ; John 4:6. M Sam. 25 : 42; 2 Sain. 17 : 23 ; 1 Kinirs 2 : 40; 2 Chron. 
28 : 15. 8 Gen. 24 : 61. 9 Mark 10 : 32, 46 ; Luke 2 : 42, 44. i<? Gen. 45 : 19, 27. 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 169 

iot. 1 Ahaziah also used the same means of flight from the wrath of 
Jehu; 2 but in both cases it is doubtless a light war-chariot that is 
meant. Between it and the vehicle intended for the transportation 
of goods or persons the Hebrew language makes a clear distinction. 
A considerable variety of the latter seems to have been known to 
antiquity. They were mostly two-wheeled, and the wheels, which 
were generally made solid, revolved around an axletree. On this 
axletree the body of the wagon or cart was directly placed. Ve- 
hicles of this sort and of very rude construction are still found in 
western Asia. The state of the roads has always been such in Pal- 
estine as to make it appear unlikely that wagons were often used for 
anything else than the transportation of goods. 5 They were drawn 
by cattle, and might be either covered or open. 4 If more than two 
animals were used, they were attached, whatever their number, side 
by side. The " cart rope" of which the prophet Isaiah speaks was 
perhaps that by which the extra cattle were connected with the 
vehicle. 5 Both the Assyrian and Egyptian monuments have rep- 
resentations of two-wheeled wagons, with seats for those riding and 
with spoked w T heels. It was probably in a chariot of Egyptian man- 
ufacture that the Ethiopian eunuch was riding, on his way from 
Jerusalem to Gaza, when Philip joined him. 6 As far as we are 
informed, the first attempt to lift the body of the vehicle from, the 
axletree and make the comfort of travellers a matter of concern was 
at the beginning of the^ fifteenth century a.d. A queen of France 
is spoken of who rode into Paris, in the year 1405, in a carriage 
whose seat was suspended on leathern straps. 

8. The Palanquin. — Something answering to the modern palan- 
quin of China and India appears to have been in use in the earliest 
times. In its first occurrence it was borne not on men's shoulders, 
but on the back or (with something to balance it) the side of the 
camel or other animal. 7 It consisted of a covered frame firmly 
attached to the saddle and fitted up with cushions and other con- 
veniences. " Litter " was another name for it. The Hebrew uses 
three words to which much the same significance was attached. In 
answer to the question " Who is this that cometh up out of the wil- 
derness like pillars of smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankin- 
cense, w T ith all powders of the merchant ?" the answer is, " Behold, 
it is the litter of Solomon ; threescore mighty men are about it, of 
the mighty men of Israel." The revisers give us "palanquin" as 

1 1 Kings 12 : 18. 2 o Kings 9 : 2\ 3 1 Sam. 6: 7, 8; Amos 2: 13. * Num. 7: 3. sisa. 
5 : 18. e Acts 8 : 28. ? Gen. 31 : 34. 



170 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

the rendering, of another word in the context ; but doubtless a sim- 
ilar vehicle is meant. 1 In Isaiah, likewise, the exiled Israelites are 
spoken of as returning " upon horses, and in chariots, and in litters, 
and upon mules, anol upon swift beasts." 2 

The modern litter of the East, which cannot greatly differ from 
the ancient one, is thus described by Van Lennep : " Persons of 
wealth and rank, when journeying, often ride, either themselves or 
their families, in a litter or taktravan, probably referred to in Isaiah 
66 : 20, and which corresponds to the palankeen of India, the trav- 
eller reclining on a mattress and cushions. . . . This vehicle is sim- 
ilar to an oblong box or the body of a carriage, with a latticed door 
on each side, and usually covered with crimson cloth. It is set and 
firmly fastened on the middle of two long parallel poles or shafts, 
whose extremities are attached to the pack-saddles of the front and 
hind mule." 3 Notwithstanding their nearness to the coast and the 
fact that for a time the tribes of Dan and Naphtali were in posses- 
sion of strips of territory along the Mediterranean, the ancient Isra- 
elites, as we have already seen, had little to do with a seafaring life. 4 
The voyages actually undertaken by them were made not from the 
coasts of Palestine, but from harbors in the Eed Sea. Even these 
exceptional enterprises were not entered upon independently, but in 
connection with Phoenician ship-builders and mariners. It will be 
recalled, too, that the timber with which King Hiram of Tyre sup- 
plied Solomon for the temple at Jerusalem was transported to Joppa, 
its nearest seaport, by him, the land-carriage only being attended to 
by the servants of Solomon. 5 

9. Journeying by Water. — It is a noteworthy circumstance 
that no mention is made in the Old Testament of the use of boats 
on the Sea of Galilee. It is quite otherwise in the New Testament. 
During the ministry of our Lord this province enjoyed a commer- 
cial and political activity unknown before. It was the scene of the 
most of his public life, and the first three gospels are made up largely 
of events that occurred there. The majority of the apostles were 
Galilseans, either by birth or residence. A number of them were 
fishermen. 6 Jesus on several occasions makes use of their boats, as 
well as those of others, in traversing the lake which formed, with 
the Jordan, the eastern boundary of the province. Josephus informs 
us that he himself once, in a feint that he made against the Romans, 

1 Cant. 3 : 6, 7, 9. 2 Isa. 66 : 20. 3 Bible Lands, p. 226. 4 (ion. -19 : 13 ; Pout, 83 : 19 ; 

Josh. 19 : 28 ; Judg. 5 : 17. & 2 Chron. 2 : 16 ; 20 : 36. e Matt. 1 : 21 ; Luke 5 : 2, 3 ; John 
6 : 23 ; 21 : 3. 




Egyptian Bags of Money. (After Wilkinson.) 




Egyptian Scales for weighing Rings of Gold. 





An Eastern Water-seller, with Skin Bottle 
Camel or Dromedary saddled for Travelling. filled with Water. 




Ancient Nile Boat. 
e, Forecastle, f, Hole for ropes to haul in sail, g, g, Yard, ft, Mast. 



172 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

was able to gather together on this lake no less than two hundred 
and thirty boats carrying four men each. 1 The usual size of the 
craft may be inferred from this fact. It is not to be wondered at, 
therefore, that a boat carrying the Master and his disciples should 
be in danger of sinking in a storm. 2 A passage in Deuteronomy 
has been unjustly thought to imply that journeying by sea was 
specially distasteful to the Israelites. 3 The graphic description of 
an ocean tempest found in the Psalms is probably the result of 
experience. 4 In other passages, too, a practical acquaintance with 
life at sea is presupposed. 5 Allusions to war-vessels are far less fre- 
quent than to merchantmen. 6 Even among the various kinds of 
the latter a distinction is recognized. "There," says the prophet 
Isaiah, " the Lord will be with us in majesty, a place of broad rivers 
and streams ; wherein shall go no galley with oars, neither shall gal- 
lant ship pass thereby." 7 

10. The Ancient Merchant-vessel. — A somewhat detailed 
description of the ancient merchant-vessel is incidentally given in 
the prophecy of Ezekiel. 8 The city of Tyre is compared with such a 
vessel, and, as might be expected, with one of the richest and most 
highly ornamented. Her planks are said to be from trees of Senir 
(Hermon). Her mast is a cedar from Lebanon. The oaks of Ba- 
shan furnish the oars. Her benches (or decks) are of ivory inlaid 
in boxwood from the isles of Kittim (Cyprus and other islands 
of the Mediterranean). For a sail only the embroidered linen 
of Egypt will satisfy, and for awnings only blue and purple from 
the isles of Elishah (the Grecian Archipelago). The rowers come 
from Zidon and Arvad (an island near Tyre). The pilots are of 
the " wise men" of Tyre itself. As calkers (or ship-carpenters) the 
elders of Gebal (a place near Tyre) and the " wise men thereof" are 
taken along. Merchants are also found aboard who trade in the 
goods with which the craft is laden, and soldiers to defend them as 
well as to keep order in the numerous company. Other scraps of 
information on this subject are furnished here and there in the Old 
Testament. In the prophecy of Jonah, for example, we find the 
modern name of " salts" given (in Hebrew) to sailors, together with 
another referring to their skill in handling the ropes. 9 Here, too, 
we learn that passengers were received on board merchant- vessels to 
be carried, for a stipulated sum, from place to place, accommoda- 

i Joseplius, Wars of Jews, 2, 21 : 8. 2 Mark 4 : ST. 3 petit. 28 : 68. « Ps. 107 : 23-30. 
6 Ps. 48 : 7 ; Ezek. 27 : 26. 6 Num. 24 : 24; Dan. 11 : 30 ; 1 Mace. 1 : 17 ; 11 : 1 ; 15 : 4 ; 2 Mace. 

14:1. * i sa . 33 : 21. 8 Ezek. 27 : 5-9, 27. » Jonah 1 : 5, 6. 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 173 

tions beiDg provided for them below the deck. Already the method 
of lightening a vessel in danger of swamping, by casting overboard 
its lading, is understood, as well as the means for spreading the sail 
and making firm the mast. 1 The reference in Proverbs to lying 
down on " the top of a mast " seems to imply a knowledge of the 
cross-trees, or main royal yard. 2 

11. Navigation in New Testament Times. — When we pass 
from the Old Testament to the New the additional information ob- 
tained concerning early methods of navigation is something remark- 
able both in quality and amount. From a simple narrative of one 
of Paul's journeys recorded in the Acts more is learned of the 
structure and management of ancient vessels than can be gleaned 
from the w 7 hole body of contemporaneous profane literature. 3 This 
eventful journey of the apostle was made in three different ships. 
The first was an Adramyttian coasting-vessel. The second, in which 
he w T as WTecked, was an Alexandrian corn-ship. The third, which 
succeeded in landing him safely at Puteoli, the port from which he 
reached Rome, was also an Alexandrian corn-ship. The second of 
these vessels was of a size sufficient to carry, in addition to its cargo, 
two hundred and seventy-six passengers. These passengers were 
afterwards transferred to the third vessel, which already had a crew 
and cargo of its own, and apparently without overloading it. 4 Ac- 
cordingly, it may be safely inferred that trading-vessels at the begin- 
ning of the Christian era w T ere not much smaller than those of the 
present day. 

The interesting narrative of Luke also furnishes us with an item 
respecting the appearance of the hull of vessels at that day. That 
in which Paul was wrecked seems to have had an eye painted on 
each side of the bow, a custom which is still followed on the Medi- 
terranean ; at least, when it is said that the vessel could not " face 
the wind," the Greek is " eye," or " look at, the wind." The vessel 
in which the apostle re-shipped is said to have had for its sign "The 
Twin Brothers," that is, Castor and Pollux. Images of these fabu- 
lous heroes were doubtless either painted or engraved on the prow. 
A hint is given, too, concerning the steering apparatus. From a 
passage in James it has been supposed that some ancient vessels were 
provided with but a single rudder, although this is not directly 
stated. 5 That on which Paul was shipwrecked at Malta had at least 
two, and the process of lashing and unlashing them when an anchor 

i Isa. 33 : 23. 2 p rov . 23 : 34. 3 Acts 27, 28. * Cf. Josephus, Life, chap. iii. 6 James 
3:4. 



174 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

was thrown out is described. The rudder at this period seems to 
have beeu only a larger kind of oar working through a hole or row- 
lock on the quarter of the vessel. 

The anchors, if we may trust representations of them preserved 
on ancient coius, were scarcely inferior in vyorkmanship to our own 
and much resembled them in form. They were carried at the stern. 
The ship's boat is twice mentioned in the account iu the Acts. It 
seems at first to have been towed behind ; but was hoisted on board 
when the storm came on and wholly cut loose when the sailors sought 
to escape by it. The " undergirders" referred to were chains or ropes 
used to bind around the vessel to prevent its planks from starting. 
The rig of ancient ships consisted ordinarily of one mast provided 
with a single square sail fastened to a yard. If more sails were used 
they were set on the same general principle. In the Acts a foresail 
is expressly mentioned, and its use, to bring the ship around in order 
to beach her, is noteworthy. 1 Vessels so rigged made good progress 
before the wind, but were not well fitted to sail against it. 2 Using 
the lead on approaching the shore was already common, and being 
so was naturally much more common than in modern times, owing 
to the absence of compass, charts and other helps. 3 The practice of 
anchoring at night, when sailing was dangerous, was often resorted 
to for the same reasons. 4 

12. Money. — Previous to the Babylonian captivity coined money 
did not circulate among the Israelites. The history of uncoined 
money dates back to the earliest times. In a business transaction 
which Abraham some time after his arrival in Palestine had with 
Ephron the Hittite, we read that he " weighed to Ephron the silver, 
which he had named in the audience of the children of Heth, four 
hundred shekels of silver, current money with the merchant." 5 This 
seems to mean that the amount of money paid over was equivalent 
in weight and quality to fifty of the shekel-pieces then current in 
trade. Numerous other instances of the weighing of money occur 
in the Old Testament ; and where it is said to be counted, it is in 
cases where it probably consisted of a considerable number of pieces. 6 
When a definite sum had to be determined or was transferred from 
hand to hand, the scales were invariably resorted to, as in the con- 
text of one of the passages last cited. In Isaiah 46 : 6 a distinction 
is thought by some to be made between gold and silver as it respects 
coinage, certain persons being mentioned who lavished " gold out of 

i Acts 27 : 40. n - Acts 27 : 3-5 ; G : 8 ; 28 : 12, 13. •"* Acts 27 : 28. 4 Acts 20 : 15, 10 ; 21 : 1. 
Mini. 23: 1G; cf. 17: 13. " 2 Kings 12:10; Jei.32:9; Zech. 11 : 12. 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 175 

a bag," while they " weighed silver in the balance." It is possible 
that pieces of gold of a fixed valuation and weight are meant ; but 
it is quite as likely that it is merely accidental that the gold as well 
as the silver is not spoken of as weighed. That the money of the 
ancient Israelites was generally weighed to determine its value is in- 
cidentally confirmed by the word shekel, which being the most com- 
mon form of money has also the root-meaning to weigh. Nor is the 
argument weakened by the circumstance that there were half and 
quarter shekel-pieces. On the other hand, the Hebrew word for 
talent, kikkar, meaning a ring, suggests the probability that it was 
the largest pieces of money only that were found in the shape of 
rings. (See illustration, p. 171.) 

There is definite monumental evidence that gold and silver, some- 
times in the form of rings which were apparently of much the same 
size and quality, circulated in Egypt considerably anterior to the 
exodus. During the prevalence of the famine described in Genesis 
41 : 53-57, Joseph at first sold grain to the people for money. This 
Egyptian money is frequently represented, on the monuments, lying 
on scales, and though looking much alike it would appear that the 
pieces were of different quality, or were not actually all of the same 
weight. There is certainly no evidence that such money circulated 
by authority of the government and with its stamp upon it. Un- 
doubtedly the precious metals were used as money in other forms than 
that of the ring. We read in Joshua, for example, of a " wedge" 
(literally, "tongue") of gold, whose weight is fifty shekels. 1 The 
first biblical reference to gold as a medium of exchange is where 
David purchases of Oman (elsewhere " Araunah") the Jebusite his 
threshing-floor in order to erect an altar there. The practice of 
weighing money still obtains among half-civilized peoples. It is 
said that in the island of Madagascar the Spanish dollar is often cut 
into fragments by dealers and weighed in small scales which they 
carry with them. Even among civilized nations large pecuniary 
transactions are not infrequently effected by means of gold and silver 
transferred in bulk. 

13. Value op Hebrew Money by Weight. — After a careful 
examination of conflicting theories respecting Hebrew money, that 
supported by R. S. Poole of the British Museum (art. "Money" in 
Smith's Bible Dictionary), and adopted by Madden in his History of 
Jeivish Coinage (London, 1864), seems to us to have the most to 
commend it. Previous to the Babylonian exile four denominations 

i Josh. 7 : 21. 




Jewish Shekel, ascribed to Simon Maccabaeus. 
[One side has the Hebrew legend " Shekel Israel," a 
cup or chalice, and above it the date of the year when 
the coin was struck. On the reverse side is the legend 
" Jerusalem the Holy," and a triple lily or hyacinth.] 



Denarius, Roman Penny of Tiberius. 
[On one side is a portrait of Tiberius, with the inscrip- 
tion "Ti. Caesar Divi. Aug. P. Augustus" (.Tiberius 
Caesar Augustus, son of the divine Augustus). On the 
other side is a female figure and the inscription " fontif. 
iMaxim." (Pontifex Maximus).] 




The Tetradracbma, or Stater, the Equivalent of the 
Jewish Shekel. 

[The one figured above bears the name of Lysimachus, but the 
type and profile are those of Alexander the Great. It is from a spec- 
imen in the British Museum.] 




The Roman Denarius " Penny." Coraraou 
form of Roman " Pence." 




Coins to Commemorate the Capture of Judaea. 

[On the left-hand coin is seen the emperor Titus; Ju- 
daea is weeping at the foot of a palm tree. On the right 
hand, a Jewish captive with hands tied behind his back 
looks upon a Jewess seated at the foot of a palm tree. ] 




Assarion (farthing). Actual size. {From 
specimen in British Museum.) 




Coin of Herod the Great. 



Coin of Herod Agrippa I. 



COINS OP THE BIBLK. 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 177 

of money were in use : the talent, the maneh (Gr., mind) or pound, 
the shekel with its divisions (bekah, |- ; gerah, 3 \y), and the kesitah. 
Nearly all of these terms are the same with the Babylonian. Much 
light has been shed on the whole subject by recent discoveries in the 
East, especially from a collection of stamped weights that has been 
gathered in the British Museum. 

In the Hebrew money-system there was a gold and a silver talent, 
the one containing one hundred manehs, or ten thousand shekels, 
the other fifty manehs and three thousand shekels. There was also a 
copper talent of fifteen hundred copper shekels, each one of which 
was four times as heavy as the shekel of gold. The gold shekel 
contained about one hundred and thirty-two grains troy of the 
metal ; the silver, two hundred and twenty ; the copper, two hun- 
dred and sixty-four. There are good reasons for supposing that 
the Hebrew system, if not the original of the others, most nearly 
approaches the original, the Egyptian alone, possibly, being excepted. 
An effort has been made to show from Ezekiel 45 : 12 that the maneh 
of gold was not composed of one hundred shekels, but of sixty. It 
is extremely doubtful whether the passage, if it is genuine, can be 
so applied. Meantime two important manuscripts, the Vatican and 
the Alexandrine, have fifty instead of the fifteen in the common 
text, making the whole number of shekels ninety-five, thus bringing 
it nearly into harmony with other passages. It is not possible to 
say with certainty what value was assigned the coin called kesitah, 
mentioned in a few places. 1 From the connection in which it is 
used, it has been estimated to be worth four shekels. Jacob gave a 
hundred kesitahs to Hamor for the " parcel of ground where he had 
spread his tent ;" and each of Job's acquaintances gave him one of 
them, besides a ring of gold. The expression " shekel of the sanc- 
tuary," found in Exodus 30 : 24, probably means simply a full 
shekel. With it is to be compared that used of the shekels paid 
by Abraham to the children of Heth (one " current with the mer- 
chant" 2 ) and the so-called "king's weight" mentioned in 2 Samuel 
14 : 26. 

14. Coined Money. — Soon after the exile coined money began 
to circulate in Palestine. A Persian gold coin called a darie (worth 
about five dollars) is several times mentioned in the books of Ezra 
and Nehemiah. 3 It is by no means certain that this was the first 
piece of coined money known to the Jews. All that can be said is 

i Gen. 33 : 19 ; cf. 23 . 15 ; Josh. 24 : 32 ; Job 42 : 11. 2 Gen. 23 : 16. 3 Ezra 2 : 69 ; 8 : 27 ; 
Neh. 7 : 70-72. 



178 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

that it was the first to gain much currency among them. Upon the 
overthrow of the Persian monarchy, Greek coins of the denomina- 
tion of talents and drachmas began to be used by them. 1 The right 
to coin money was first granted to Simon, one of the Maccabaean 
heroes, B.C. 143, and specimens of the coins then minted are still 
extant. 2 The Jewish coinage, however, did not wholly supplant the 
Greek. The Greek coin of smallest value was the lepton. The 
word means a fish's scale. The widow's mite was a piece of this 
kind. 3 It required, according to the context in Mark, two to make a 
farthing, that is, the Roman coin called quadrans. There is another 
word rendered farthing in the English version (assarioii) which was 
four times as valuable as the quadrans. 4 

Besides the quadrans and the assarion, another Roman coin in 
circulation in the time of our Lord was the denarius, a silver piece 
worth about sixteen cents. 5 Of coins common to the Greeks and 
Romans there were the drachma and the stater. The former was 
valued at about one fourth of a shekel ; hence the didrachma or 
double drachma, noted in one place 6 as tribute money, was equiv- 
alent to one half a shekel, about twenty-five cents — the exact sum 
required by law for that purpose. The stater was equal in value to 
the shekel. 7 (See illustrations, p. 176.) 

15. Relative Worth of Money. — The worth of money in 
biblical times as represented in what it would purchase, though 
different at different periods, was scarcely ever so high as is gen- 
erally supposed. In the Mosaic era a ram was considered to be 
worth about two shekels of silver. 8 David paid but fifty shekels — 
but compare 1 Chronicles 21 : 25 — for the threshing-floor of Araunah, 
including two yoke of oxen with which the latter was ploughing. 9 
An Egyptian horse imported into Palestine in the time of Solomon 
cost one hundred and fifty shekels and a chariot six hundred. 10 
Omri bought the mountain on which Samaria afterwards stood for 
two talents of silver — that is, six thousand shekels. 11 In the times 
of Isaiah a vineyard sold for as many shekels as it had vines. 12 The 
ordinary price of a slave was thirty shekels, although Joseph's breth- 
ren sold him for twenty. 13 In the period of the judges the wages of a 
man by the year, including board and one suit of clothing, was but 
ten shekels of silver. 14 Tobit at a much later date is represented as 
giving a drachma — about twelve and a half cents— a day to the 

U Mace. 11:28; 2 Mace. 4:19. 2 i Mace. 15 : 6. » Mark 12 : 42 ; Luke 12 : 6. *Matt 
10:29. & Matt. 22:19. c Matt. 17 : 24. 7 Matt. 17 : 27 ; cf. Ex. 30: 13. 8 L ev . 5 : 15 

(shekels = 2 shekels). 9 2 Sam. 24 : 24. ™ 1 Kings 10 : 29. " 1 Kings 1G : 24. 12 Isa. 
7 : 23. " Gen. 37 : 28 ; Ex. 21 : 32 ; Zeeh. 11 : 12 ; Matt. 20 : 15. M Judg. 17 : 10. 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 179 

servant who accompanied his son on his journey. 1 The wages for a 
day's work in our Lord's time was a denarius, which was about the 
same amount, and was actually a higher sum than was paid to field- 
hands in Greece at that time. 2 

It is an interesting circumstance that while the Master is repre- 
sented as saying to the twelve whom he was sending forth, " Get you 
no gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses," in the parallel pas- 
sage in Mark he is said to instruct them to take no " money," the 
word rendered money being in the original "brass" or "copper." 
That is to say, Mark, in his succinct way, sums uj3 the fuller account, 
and uses for money the word for that kind of money with which the 
disciples doubtless were the most familiar, namely, the smaller copper 
coins. Luke, on the other hand, who might have been more influ- 
enced by considerations of style, uses the word " silver " (argurion) 
for money. 3 

16. Such changes as we have noticed in the currency of the 
Hebrews, their laws remaining the same, necessitated the frequent 
exchange of one coin for another. A law of Exodus, for example, re- 
quired that whenever the Israelites were numbered, each male among 
them over twenty years of age should pay into the treasury of the 
sanctuary one half a shekel, or ten gerahs. 4 In later times, after 
the Hebrew shekel had ceased to circulate so commonly, it was still 
required that this tax should be paid in Hebrew money. Hence 
the occupation of the money-changer sprang up. At the great feasts 
of New Testament times, when such multitudes from various parts 
of the world gathered at Jerusalem, there must have been no incon- 
siderable trade of this kind carried on. Incidental references show 
that it was one recognized as quite legitimate. 5 According to the 
Talmud the ordinary charge made for supplying the necessary half- 
shekel for other money was a " collybus," whose value was about 
three cents. This would be at the rate of twelve per cent, for the 
transaction of the business. It is by no means certain that a much 
larger premium than this was not sometimes exacted for the service. 
While therefore the ground for our Lord's driving the traders out 
of the temple and overthrowing the tables of the money-changers 
was not the unfairness of their dealings ; still, the epithet he applied 
to the whole class shows that their business was carried on with little 
reference to just methods. 6 

17. Means for Weighing. — The means for weighing metals and 

i Tob. 5 : 14. 2 Matt. 20 : 2. 3 Matt. 10 : 9 ; Mark 6:8; Luke 9:3. * Ex. 30 : 13. 

5 Matt. 25 : 27. 6 Matt, 21 : 12. 



180 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

other articles in ancient times were not very dissimilar from those 
now used. Ordinary stones seem originally to have served as weights 
among the Hebrews. That is the literal meaning of the word ren- 
dered weight in a number of passages. 1 When they were small they 
were often carried with the metal itself in the purse attached to the 
belt. This is still the custom in Persia. Great emphasis is laid in 
the Mosaic legislation on the importance of having correct weights 
and measures. It is enjoined, for example, in Deuteronomy, 2 "Thou 
shalt not have in thy bag divers weights, a great and a small. Thou 
shalt not have in thine house divers measures, a great and a small. 
A perfect and just weight shalt thou have ; a perfect and just meas- 
ure shalt thou have : that thy days may be long upon the land which 
the Lord thy God giveth thee." The temptation naturally was to 
use the old and depreciated weights for one purpose and the full 
weights for another, as it might seem best to serve one's interest. We 
are not informed how the accuracy of weights was to be secured. It 
may be, as there was a " shekel of the sanctuary," that the weights 
and measures used as standards were kept there. The fact that cer- 
tain Levites were appointed by David to the service of overseeing 
the matter "of measure and size" supports such a conclusion. 3 

There were two kinds of instruments for weighing in use among 
the Hebrews. The more common one consisted of a simple beam 
resting at its central point on a standard, while from its two ends 
were suspended scales or basins in w T hich the weights and the sub- 
stance to be weighed were respectively placed. 4 Balances of this 
sort were used for weighing both money and other articles. 5 The 
possibility of falsifying them is several times alluded to in the Scrip- 
tures. 6 In later times, it is likely, the Egyptian device of a sliding 
ring on one of the arms contributed to more accurate results. The 
instrument known as peles was a balance of a somewhat different 
kind, answering better to the modern steelyard. 7 The beam was 
poised, as in the former case, on its middle point, but one of its arms 
was furnished with a graduated scale. The weight of an object was 
determined by finding out at what point an adjustable ring would 
bring the beam to a horizontal position. The monuments of Egypt 
and Assyria show that great skill was early displayed in the manu- 
facture of various kinds of scales and in devices for securing their 
accuracy. 

i Lev. 19 : 3G ; 2 Sam. 14 : 2G ; Prow 11:1; Mic. 6:11; Zech. 5 : 8. « Deut. 25 : 13-15. 

8 1 ( "hron. 23 : 29. 4 Job 6:2; 31 : 6 ; Ps. 62 : 9 ; Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20 : 23. - r > Jer. 32 : 10 ; 
Ecelus. 28 : 25. 6 h os . 12 : 7 ; Amos 8:5; Mic. 6 : 11. » Prov. 16:11; lsa. 40 : 12 ; cf. 

Isa. 46 : 6. 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 181 

18. Measures of Length. — Measures of length in the Bible 
are derived from some common standard, and for the most part from 
members of the human body. The hand and forearm were espec- 
ially employed for this purpose. We have, for example, the fiuger's 
breadth ; the handbreadth ; the span, by which is meant the distance 
between the end of the thumb and little finger of the hand when it 
is extended ; the cubit, as most suppose the distance from the ex- 
tremity of the middle finger to the elbow ; and the fathom, from six 
to six and a half feet. 1 In addition to these more common measures 
there was the reed used for buildiug purposes, whose length was six 
cubits. 2 The cubit was the ordinary unit of measure, but, as might 
be inferred from its origin, needed itself to be defined. 3 It is cer- 
tain that more than one kind of cubit is referred to in the Bible ; 
the question is mooted whether there are not three. 4 The subject is 
surrounded with much difficulty ; but it would appear from a com- 
parison of several passages of Scripture with what can be learned 
from other, especially Egyptian, sources, that the ordinary cubit of 
the Bible is somewhat shorter than is commonly supposed. 

19. The three principal measures of distance in the Old Testa- 
ment were the pace, " some way," and the day's journey. 5 Of these 
the first corresponded nearly to our yard, though the Roman pace 
was four feet and ten inches. The second has not yet been deter- 
mined. By inference it is judged to be equivalent to the distance 
from Bethlehem to Rachel's burying-place. If we may trust tradi- 
tion this was about one mile and a half. A day's journey is differ- 
ently estimated by different nations. Among the Jews it was thirty 
miles when the travelling was unimpeded, and ten if it was in con- 
nection with a large company or train. In the apocryphal books of 
the Old Testament and in the New Testament there occur three other 
measures of distance: the Sabbath day's journey, the furlong and 
the mile. The rabbinical limit fixed for the first was two thousand 
paces, that is, a little more than an English mile. The furlong, or 
stadion, a measure borrowed from the foot-races of the Greeks, was 
a little more than six hundred and six feet of English measure. 6 
The mile of the New Testament was a Roman measure of a thousand 
paces, or about four thousand eight hundred and fifty-four English 
feet. 7 The only recognition of square measure in the Bible is in the 
acre. As the Hebrew shows, it was a piece of ground which a yoke 

i Gen. 6 : 15 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 4 ; 1 Kings 7 : 26 ; Jer. 52 : 21. 2 Ezek. 40 : 5-8 ; 41 : 5 ; 42 : 16-19. 
3 Cf. Lev. 19 : 35. * Deut. 3:11; 2 Chron. 3:3; Ezek. 41 : 8. & Gen. 30 : 36 ; 35 : 16 ; 2 Sam. 
6:13. 6 see Luke 24 : ] 3. i Matt. 5 : 41. 



182 DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 

of cattle could plough over in a day. 1 In English this word had the 
indefinite sense of an open field until the time of Edward the Third. 

20. Measures for Liquids. — The Hebrew measures for liquids 
were the bath, the hin and the log. We are largely dependent here, 
as in the case of dry measure, on Joseph us and the rabbins for a 
knowledge of their relative capacity. In dry measure the homer 
represented the largest amount; the same term, however, designated 
a measure for liquids. In the latter case it was equal to ten baths. 
In dry measure it represented ten ephahs, or thirty seahs, or one 
hundred omers, or one hundred and eighty kabs. 2 The omer was 
also called issaron, that is, tenth of an ephah. A measure called 
iethech is mentioned once in the Old Testament. It was equal to 
one half an omer. 3 The seah was also sometimes known as shalish, 
third, that is, the third of an ephah. 4 The kab is named but once 
in the Bible. 5 

21. Certain other measures are noted in the New Testament ex- 
clusively. These are the firkin (metretes, John 2 : 6), which the 
context shows was for liquids, and contained a little more than eight 
gallons ; the measure (chcenix, Kev. 6 : 6), for dry articles, hold- 
ing about a quart ; the pot (xestes, Mark 7 : 4), a word probably 
applied to any small vessel, though in Greek meaning the sixth and 
representing a wooden receptacle holding about a pint and a half; 
and the bushel (modius, Mark 4 : 21 ; cf. Matt. 5 : 15), which, in 
like manner, was used for any small vessel. As a Roman measure 
it contained not far from eight quarts. 



TABLES OF COINS, WEIGHTS, MEASUEES AND DISTANCES 
MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE. 

1. Silver Money (shekel = $0.73). 

1 gerah.. $ .0365 

10 " = 1 bekah .365 

20 " = 2 " = 1 shekel .73 

1,200 " = 120 " = 60 " = 1 maneh 43.80 

60,000 " =6,000 " =3,000 " =50 " = 1 talent 2,190.00 

2. Gold Money (ounce troy = $19,470). 

1 shekel 5.86 

100 " = 1 maneh 535.00 

10,000 " =100 " =1 talent 53,500.00 

l 1 Ram. 14 : 14. - Con. 18 : 6; Ex. 16 : 36 ; 1 Kings 7 : 26, 38 ; 2 Kings 6 : 25. ;! Hos. 
3 : 2 (margin). * p s . g : 5 ; Isa. 40 : 12. & ■> Kings 6 : 25. 



TRADE AND COMMERCE. 183 

3. Koman Money. 

1 lepton (mite) $ .0012 

2 " " = 1 quadrans (farthing).. .0024 

8 " " =4 " " = lassarion .0096 

4. Greek and Koman Money. 

1 denarius (penny) = 1 drachma .183 

2 " (% shekel) = didrachma .366 

4 " =2 didrachma = tetradrachina (shekel) .732 

5. Silver Weights (gerah = 11 grains, or about ^ of an ounce avoird.). 

1 gerah 11 grains. 

10 " = 1 bekah 110 

20 " = 2 " = 1 shekel 220 " 

1,200 " = 120 " = 60 " 1 maneh 15.200 " 

60,000 " =6,000 " =3,000 " =50 " = 1 talent (= about 6 lbs. 

avoirdupois) 660,000 " 

6. Gold Weights (shekel = 132 grains). 

1 shekel 132 grains. 

100 " = 1 maneh 13,200 

10,000 " =100 " = 1 talent (= nearly 12 lbs. avoirdupois) 1,320,000 " 

7. Measure of Capacity (dry). 

1 4-5 kab = 1 omer. 
6 " = 3% " = 1 seah. 
18 " = 10 " = 3 " = 1 ephah. 
180 " =100 " =30 " =10 " =1 homer (cor.) = 86,696 gall, or 10% bushel. 1 

8. Measure of Capacity (liquid). 

12 log = l hin. 

72 " =6 " =1 bath (ephah) = 8.6696 gall.i 

9. Measure of Length. 

1 finger (width) .7938 inch. 

4 " =1 palm. 3.1752 " 

12 " =3 " =lspan 9.5257 " 

24 " =6 " = 2 " =1 cubit 19.0515 " 

144 " =36 " =12 " =6 " = 1 reed (about 9 ft. 6 inches) 114.3090 " 

10. Measure of Length (foreign). 

1 Roman foot 11.64 inches. 

5 " feet= 1 Roman pace 4 feet 10.248 " 

6% " " = 6 Greek feet = 1 Greek fathom 6 " 0.81 " 

625 " " = 600 " " = 100 " " = 1 furlong... 606 " 9.00 " 

5 ( 000 " " =4,800 " " =800 " " =8 " = 1 Roman mile. 

.9193 mile = 4,854 feet. 

1 So Joseph us (Anliq. 3, 8 : 3). According to the rabbins 4.4286 gallons, or 5% bushels. 



184 



DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 




Assyrian Basins. (See p. 80.) {British 
Museum.) 



Egyptian Household Chest or Box. 





Eastern Stone Water-jars. (See p. 80.) 



Mode ol Wearing Nose-jewel, Plaiting the 
Hair and Covering the Ilead by Eastern 
Women. (See p. 101.) 



PART II. 



CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 



185 




Head-dress of Assyrian King and Queen. 
{From Nineveh Marbles.) 




Tomb of the Judges, near Jerusalem. (See |j 
page 61.) (From Photograph by Good.) 'm 

1 1 





Profile of Eameses II., the Pharaoh of the 
Oppression. (After Lepsius.) 



Beards of Assyrian and other Nations 
(After Rosellini and Layard.) 




-" 



Throne or Chair of State. (From the Assyrian Supposed Ground-plan of Solomon's 
Monuments at Khorsabad.) Palace. 

186 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE GOVERNMENT. 

The spirit and teaching of the Bible throughout are in harmony 
with the declaration of Paul that the powers that be are " ordained 
of God." 1 Kudimentally, at least, it furnishes at the outset of human 
history the foundation of a civil polity. As soon as the family began 
to exist, there existed in the world a divine institution which more 
than any other lies at the basis of the state — is the vital unit of its 
composite structures and the chief visible foundation of its strength 
and authority. The beginning of human government and the germ 
of all right human government is family government. The theory 
of a so-called natural society at the start, where all were exactly 
equal and all free and independent of one another, has no founda- 
tion in fact. 2 

1. The Family the Norm. — It would perhaps be possible to 
trace, in the antediluvian period, the dominance of family influence 
in whatever government then existed. 3 It certainly asserts itself 
conspicuously in what is technically known as "sacred history." 
Of Abraham Jehovah says that he has " known him, to the end that 
he may command his children and his household after him, that 
they may keep the way of the Lord, to do justice and judgment."* 
So from family government, which was the original form, sprang 
patriarchal government. The patriarch was the father of his race. 
This fact carried with it, to the Oriental mind, primarily the idea 
of rulership — a rulership which, in an inferior degree, was trans- 
mitted to the first-born son of each succeeding family. The author- 
ity of the patriarch was not merely civil ; it was absolute and uni- 
versal. Under God, and as responsible only to him, his will was 
law to his descendants. 5 As families multiplied, the bond that 
united them was still their relation to a common ancestor. After 
they grew to numerous and powerful tribes and the influence of 
consanguinity was less felt, the necessity arose for new provisions 
by means of which a natural tendency to disintegration might be 
checked. 

i Rom. 13:1. 2 Gen. 1 : 26-28. 3 Gen. 4:16, 17, 23, 24; 5: 1; 7:1. i Gen. 18 : 19 ; cf. 
Amos 3 ; 2. *■ Gen. 22 : y. 

187 



188 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

2. On going into Egypt, the tribes of Israel seem to have kept 
tip, in its principal features, the patriarchal form of government. 
Together they formed what was known as the family or house of 
Israel. This whole was genealogically subdivided into tribes, fam- 
ilies, households or fathers' houses, aud individuals, the last includ- 
ing the persons of a family, the husband and wife w T ith their chil- 
dren. This division of the nation is perhaps most clearly set forth 
in a passage in the book of Joshua where the discovery of Achan's 
transgression is described. First among the tribes, Judah was 
taken ; of this tribe, the family of the Zerahites was taken ; of this 
family, the household of Zabdi ; and of this household, Achan was 
taken. 1 The father of each household, and so too the head of each 
family, was supreme within his circle. The tribe obeyed its prince, 
who originally was the first-born son of its founder. Down to the 
time of the captivity the number of tribes remained the same. 2 The 
Levites, however, having no inheritance with their brethren, there 
would have been but eleven tribes to possess Canaan had not Jacob, 
just before his death, adopted the two sons of Joseph as his own in 
their father's place. 3 The names of Ephraim and Manasseh, accord- 
ingly, survive as heads of tribes. The number and designation of 
families and households, on the other hand, w T as constantly under- 
going change. While yet in the wilderness, two enumerations of 
the people of Israel, according to their families, were made. 4 From 
the second of them it appears that of the fifty-seven families found, 
the most, as might be expected, are named from sons of the tribal 
prince ; but others from grandsons and even great-grandsons. The 
same change in title may safely be assumed to have taken place also 
in households or fathers' houses, although direct evidence for it may 
not be found. Just what principle ruled in the selection of the head 
of a family or a household, the son of a founder failing, it is not pos- 
sible to say. There is even reason to suppose that no one principle 
governed at all times. In fact, the whole subject is involved in 
not a little confusion. In 1 Samuel 10 : 21, for example, we read 
that Saul was of the family of Matri, of the tribe of Benjamin ; but 
on turning to the book of Numbers, where the families of Benjamin 
are enumerated, we do not find one of this name among them. 5 

3. Another source of confusion is the fact that the Hebrew word 
for family is used in the Scriptures in several different senses. Be- 
sides being the designation of the main subdivision of the tribe, it is 

i Josh. 7 : 14, 16-18. 2 Gen. 49 : 28 ; Ex. 24 : 4; Acts 26 : 7. » Gen. 48:5,6. < Num. 1 
and 26. 6 Num. 26 : 38-41. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 189 

used also as an equivalent for nation, and even for the tribe itself. 1 
The same is true of the Hebrew word for household, or father's 
house. It is used not alone as a title for the second largest division 
of the tribe, but more definitely for the principal father's house, 
which might be the title also of the whole tribe. 2 While Israel 
remained in Egypt it is not to be supposed that the authority of 
tribal chiefs or princes was much superior to that of heads of fam- 
ilies or even those of households. Jacob himself had set the exam- 
ple of depreciating this dignity, in refusing on the ground of crime, 
to Reuben his first-born, the double portion to which otherwise he 
would have been entitled. 3 It was given to the two sons of Joseph. 
Of these sons, moreover, he assigned to the younger a higher position 
than to the elder. It seems probable that in the necessary lack of 
unity among the people at this time, heads of families gradually 
attained to a position of influence scarcely second to the highest ; 
at least we find the same title — that of " prince" — given to them in 
the Pentateuch. 4 

4. The Eldership. — Already before the beginning of the Mosaic 
era there had arisen a class of persons called elders, who exercised 
the very highest authority among the people. It is before them 
that Moses and Aaron appear to deliver the message from God 
respecting the deliverance from Egypt. 5 It is through them that 
Moses afterwards issues instructions that are intended for the whole 
people. 6 At first, undoubtedly, the word elder signified simply 
" aged ;" then, an office mostly filled by the aged. 7 At what time 
it came to designate almost solely an office it is not possible to say. 
The eldership in Israel is not to be regarded as a ruling class dis- 
tinct from the heads of tribes and families. It was one with them, 
or at least to a large extent included them. The title " elders" was 
given to them when tribal and genealogical distinctions were less in 
view and the people as a whole were thought of. 

5. Beginnings of Representative Government. — During 
the sojourn in the wilderness, calls for the administration of justice 
between man and man grew to such an extent that Moses, on whom 
it fell, found himself inadequate to the task. On the suggestion, 
therefore, of his father-in-law he appointed seventy elders to be 
" rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties, and rulers 
of tens." 8 The business assigned them was to "judge the people at 
all seasons ;" and only in case a matter was too difficult for them, to 

i Gen. 12 : 3 ; Josh. 7 : 17. 2 Num. 1:4; 17:2; Josh. 22: 14. 3 c.en. 35: 22. 4 Num. 
3:24,30,35. 6 Ex. 3 : 16, 18. 6 Ex. 4:29. 7 josh. 24 : 31 ; 1 Kings 12 : 6. 8 Ex. 18 : 13-22. 



190 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

appeal to Moses. It is clear that in appointing these men Moses 
took them from the eldership already existing — that is, made his 
choice dependent on the existing organization of the tribes. The 
term "thousands" is itself afterwards applied to the families of 
Israel. 1 So, too, the persons indicated by "hundreds" and "tens" 
are not simply individuals taken indiscriminately from the tribes, 
but from those smaller sections into which the people, from the first, 
had been divided. Each one of them was composed of a variable 
number of persons. It seems probable that Moses, without intei^ 
fering with the functions of the eldership in other respects, on find- 
ing that body too unwieldy for this special matter of civil processes, 
adopted the present expedient to meet the difficulty. After his 
death it does not appear to have been perpetuated. In fact, while 
Israel was still in the wilderness he instituted another method for 
the administration of justice, intended for the period after the con- 
quest. It was by means of local courts, which were allowed to carry 
the more difficult cases up to a supreme court to be found at the cap- 
ital or the central place of worship. 2 

Most of the public business was transacted by the eldership. They 
represented the people so fully that, in some passages, elders and 
people are used as interchangeable terms. 3 After the settlement in 
Canaan, it was from this body, as previously in the case of the seventy 
elders, that all new officials were selected. They not only continued 
to act as national representatives when occasion called for it, but also 
as local rulers and magistrates. 4 The body survived, at least in name, 
the hard experiences of the exile, and we continue to hear of it in 
the time of the Maccabees, and even at the beginning of the Chris- 
tian era. 5 At this last period they did not, as might be supposed, 
exclusively make up the sanhedrin, but were a distinct class by 
themselves, though one among others from which the sanhedrin was 
formed. 6 After the occupation of Canaan, it was only on rare oc- 
casions and where matters of great importance required it that the 
whole congregation was ever convened. When it was desired to 
summon the eldership for any public business, the signal was a num- 
ber of blasts on a single trumpet. Two trumpets were used when 
the congregation was to assemble. 7 

6. The Shoterim or " Officers." — A class of persons gener- 
ally styled in the English version " officers" begins to appear in the 

i Num. 1 : 16 ; 10 : 4 ; 1 Sam. 10 : 19. 2 Deut. 16 : 18-20 : 17 : 8-13. 3 j os h. 24 : 1 ; cf. vs. 2, 
19, 21. 4 R u th 4 : 9, 11 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 11. » 1 Mace. 12:6; 2 Mace. 1 : 10. *> Matt. 16 : 21 ; 
21 : 23 ; Luke 22 : 66 ; Acts 22 : 5. i Num. 10 : 4. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 191 

earliest history of Israel. 1 From the etymology of the word and 
other considerations, it is safe to infer that their first business was to 
act as scribes or registrars. It is likely that, at first, the care of the 
genealogical tables was committed to them. Afterwards a number 
of other corresponding services were required. During the enslave- 
ment of Israel in Egypt, the Egyptians employed them as subordin- 
ate to native task-masters in the capacity of overseers of their own 
people. Their duty was to secure from their countrymen a certain 
specified amount of work, at the risk of being themselves beaten if 
it were not done. 2 These same persons, at least persons similarly 
named, we find somewhat later acting in the capacity of officers of 
the highest authority in military affairs ; and subsequently still, as 
adjutants to Joshua. 3 In connection with the judiciary, too, after 
the conquest they are assigned important positions, second only to 
the judges themselves. 4 And after the rise of the kingdom, though 
now become numerous, they are still found in stations of power and 
influence. 5 At the beginning they formed a part of the eldership. 6 
The Scriptures do not inform us how the office arose or how its in- 
cumbents were chosen. 

7. Government in the Period of the Judges. — The period 
which followed the Egyptian thralldom in the history of Israel 
was peculiar; accordingly, peculiar methods of government were 
adopted. For example, the position and influence of Moses, Joshua, 
and the other military leaders who succeeded them in the time of 
the judges, were extraordinary. They form no essential part of that 
system of government which we find outlined in the earlier books 
of the Bible. They were especially raised up to introduce the the- 
ocracy. To the theocracy, as a system of civil government, their 
offices were not essential ; they were not provided for in it. They 
were even independent of one another. Joshua followed Moses, but 
was in no proper sense his successor. His function was quite a differ- 
ent one. Like the staging used in the construction of a building, to 
be taken down when the building is completed, so these offices passed 
away with the individual men who, in the providence of God, were 
called on to fill them. 

8. Moses speaks of a "prophet" who would come after him and 
who would be like him ; but only as a religious instructor and guide. 7 
It is certain that in this utterance he makes no reference to the civil 
polity of Israel. He has in view, as it would seem, that long line 

1 Ex. 5:6. 2 Ex. 5 : 6, 14-16. a Deut. 20:5, 8, 9; Josh. 1 : 10; 3:2. * Deut. 16 : 18. 

5 1 Chron. 23 : 4 ; 26 : 29 ; 2 Chron. 19 : 11. 6 Num. 11 : 16. * Deut. 18 : 15-21. 



192 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

of Israelitish prophets which, beginning with Samuel, culminated in 
him who proclaimed himself "the way, and the truth, and the life." 1 
Joshua's work, though less important and far-reaching than that of 
Moses, was no less unique. His special training as well as the call 
of God set him apart as the military leader of Israel in the conquest 
of Palestine. 2 When that work was done he retired to Timnath- 
serah, a place that had been allotted him among his own tribe, with- 
out a thought of permanently holding his high office, much less of 
transmitting it to his posterity. 3 There is scarcely anything more 
extraordinary in the extraordinary history of Israel than the bib- 
lical account of the lives of these two great men in connection with 
the enfranchisement of their people and the establishment of the 
Hebrew commonwealth in a newly-conquered country. 

The period of the judges was hardly less abnormal than that of 
Moses and Joshua had been. The land w T as, at first, pretty thor- 
oughly subdued. The people had inherited a code of laws more 
than sufficient for present necessities. But tribal difficulties were 
continually arising which needed to be adjusted ; and Israel was 
very imperfectly prepared morally to enter upon the high state of 
self-government which the theocracy both permitted and imposed. 
Above all, there arose among them, on a large scale, defections and 
apostasy. A generation came up " which knew not the Lord, nor 
yet the work which he had wrought for Israel." 4 Hence, as a spe- 
cific provision for the occasion, there was providentially raised up 
a series of judges. They were not rulers in any proper sense of the 
term. They were not regarded as having any organic connection 
with the government. Their authority was limited not only to the 
time that called it forth, but it was also much limited in extent. 
Rarely did the tribes act in concert. 5 The elders still had the widest 
and most permanent influence in civil affairs. 6 

9. Position of the Levites. — The Levites, in harmony with 
the peculiar prerogative given them in the Mosaic laws, were scat- 
tered among the several tribes. 7 Some religious rites enjoined by 
the law continued to be observed. 8 The national sanctuary was 
maintained, and for the most part at Shiloh. 9 Here Phinehas, 
grandson of Aaron, officiated as priest, 10 and here the annual festi- 
vals enjoined in the code seem to have been, to some extent, cele- 
brated. 11 There is evidence too, as in the case of the idolater Micah 

i John 14 : 6. 2 Num. 27 : 18-23. 3 Josh. 19 : 50 ; cf. 24 : 1-32. * Judg. 2 : 10. 6 Judg. 
1:3,17,22-25; 5:14-18; 6:35; 8:1-3, 22,23; 20:10. « Judg. 21:16. 'Judg, 17:5-13; 

19 : 1, 2. 8 Judg. 14 : 3 ; 15 : 18. » Judg. 18 : 31 ; 19 : 18. w Judg. 20 : 28. " Judg. 21 : 19. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 193 

and the ephod of Gideon, that there remained in the hearts of the 
people a consciousness that the evil courses they were pursuing 
were a defection from the right way. 1 The names of fifteen so- 
called judges, who exercised power in Israel between the death of 
Joshua and the establishment of the kingdom, are given in the Bible. 
They are Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Deborah and Barak, Gideon, 
Abimelech, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, Samson, Eli, 
and Samuel. In the case of most of them, however, the office of 
judge was greatly subordinated to that of military leader, especially 
at the beginning of their career. But this was not true of Samuel 
nor Eli. Nothing is said of feats of arms performed by them, or by 
Tola, Ibzan, Elon and Abdon. 

10. Laws of the Earliest Period. — Our account of the 
government of Israel in this its first period would be incomplete 
without some reference to the laws which originated in it. It is to 
be confessed that it is not easy to discriminate between the Mosaic 
code in its civil and ecclesiastical aspects. All the laws of the Pen- 
tateuch have a direct ethical and spiritual bearing. It could not be 
otherwise when Jehovah is recognized as the one supreme Buler. 
Some, however, relate more directly to sacred places, seasons, persons 
and service ; these will be treated specially by themselves. Besides 
them there are other laws of a more general character. One series 
of them, for example, relates to idolatry. 2 In a theocracy, idolatry 
was equivalent to high treason, and the severest penalties were ac- 
cordingly visited upon it. Again, there are the more temporary 
regulations concerning the treatment of Canaanitish and other 
heathen cities. 3 Then follow laws relating to mourning customs and 
food ; 4 to Hebrew and to foreign servants ; 5 to the establishment of 
a judiciary ; 6 to the number of witnesses required in capital cases ; 7 
a law limiting the custom of blood-revenge by the appointment of 
cities of refuge; 8 one prohibiting magic arts; 9 forbidding the re- 
moval of landmarks; 10 punishing unchastity ; 11 and one against 
bearing false witness. 12 

11. We have, too, a description of the process to be pursued in the 
case of a murderer where the murderer is unknown ; 13 a regulation 

i Judg. 8 : 24-27 ; 17 : 5-13. 2 * Deut. 4 : 15, 19 ; 7:5, 25, 26 ; 12 : 2-4, 29-31 ; 17 : 2-5 ; 18 : 10 ; 

20 : 18. 3 Deut. 13 : 12-18 ; 20 : 10-20. * Deut. 14 : 1-20. & D eu t. 15 : 12-18 ; 16 : 19, 20 ; 

21: 10-14; 24:14, 15. 6 D eu t. 16 : 18-20; 17 : 8-13. 7 Deut. 17 : 6, 7 ; cf. 19 : 15, 16. * Deut. 
19 : 1-13. 9 Deut. 18 : 9-14. w Deut. 19 : 14. " Deut. 22 : 13-21 ; 23 : 1. 12 Deut. 19 : 15-21. 
« Deut. 21 : 1-9. 

* It has seemed best to limit the citations to the forms of the law found in Deuteronomy. For the parallel pas- 
sages a reference Bible may be consulted. 

13 



194 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

defining how a disobedient son is to be treated ; l one showing what 
course is to be adopted on the occasion of a public execution with 
impaling; 2 one concerning the property of a brother Israelite; 3 
concerning kindness to animals ; i the protection of life ; 5 regulating 
the dress; 6 relating to the classes of persons to be denied citizenship 
with Israel; 7 fugitive slaves; 8 prostitution; 9 usury; 10 divorce; 11 
man-stealing; 12 sanitary regulations in the case of leprosy; 13 glean- 
ing; 14 levirate marriage; 15 the degree and method of punishment 
by flogging; 16 the penalty for gross immodesty ; 17 the rights of in- 
heritance; 18 and the provision for just weights and measures. 19 

It is marvellous to what extent these regulations cover the ground 
of civic and social duties from the point of view of the Mosaic 
period, or indeed of any period. Add to them the laws already 
spoken of as being of a more religious character and it is not sur- 
prising that, on any theory of natural development, critics are wholly 
unable to find a place for them in the period of the exodus. Without 
the assumption of a special divine interposition and training such as 
has been seen in the history of no other people, we can just as little 
account for Israel as for its legislation. It was a people and nation 
organized on a divine plan. It was made up not of a mass of heter- 
ogeneous individuals held together by stress of circumstances or force 
of custom. It existed rather as a well-developed organism, itself 
divisible into other organisms, the principal and most potent one of 
all being the compact organism of the family as God constituted it 
at the beginning. 

12. Practicability of the Mosaic Laws. — Fault has been 
found with the political constitution of Israel as formulated in the 
Pentateuch as impracticable. Undoubtedly it w r as in no small de- 
gree impracticable for such a people as Israel then w T as. But was 
not this one of its principal objects and benefits : to show the distance 
between the real and the ideal, stimulate to the highest endeavor, 
and, especially, demonstrate the hand of God ? With at least equal 
justice the moral precepts of Jesus Christ may be said to have been 
impracticable for the generation in which he lived. Divine fore- 
sight is particularly shown in the Mosaic laws not only in the unique 
and noble ideal that is set before Israel in them, but in the provis- 
ions which they themselves contain for such exigencies as might 

J Deut. 21 : 18-21. 2 Deut. 21 : 22, 23. 3 Dcut. 22 : 1-4. * Dcut. 22 : 6, 7. 5 Pout. 

22 : 8. « Deut. 22 : 5, 9-12. 7 Deut. 23 : 2-9. 8 D eu t. 23 : 15, 16. ° Deut, 23 : 17, 18. 

io Deut. 23 : 19, 20. » Deut. 24 : 1-4. ^ Dcut, 24 : 7. » Deut. 24 : 8, 9. "Deut. 24: 
19-22. w Deut. 25 : 5-10. " Deut. 25 : 1-3. » Deut. 25 : 11, 12. " Deut. 21 : 15-17. 
19 Deut. 25 : 13-1G. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 195 

arise from any imperfect execution of them. If Israel, for example, 
had been morally prepared to adopt and act on that early declara- 
tion that they were to be a " kingdom of priests, and a holy nation," ' 
it would have been quite unnecessary to establish a distinct class of 
priests, and impose on the people the burdensome ceremonial ritual. 
So, too, if they had been prepared to execute in full the civil laws 
given them through Moses, they would never have needed to change 
their form of government and take upon themselves the additional 
burdens of the kingdom. It was from this point of view, in fact, 
that Samuel condemned the project of a kingdom when it was 
introduced, as Gideon had done before him. 2 It was essentially a 
retrogression from the standard which had been set for Israel. The 
prophet therefore only yielded, under protest, to the popular clamor. 
Still the fact that the Israelitish people would thus conduct itself 
had been foreseen, and this precise exigency provided for in the 
original scheme of Moses. 

13. The Kingdom. — Already in Genesis there are intimations 
that a kingdom w 7 ould ultimately arise among the Hebrews. 3 In 
the code of Deuteronomy there is a distinct section relating to such 
a change in the civil polity. 4 It looks forward to the times of the 
peaceful occupation of Canaan. The period would then come when 
there would be a popular demand for a king. Consent is to be yielded 
to it on certain conditions. Definite directions are given for the 
choice of the sovereign, the title he shall bear, the government of 
his household, his income, his relative position among his brethren, 
the succession and other matters, in a way to set this future king of 
Israel quite apart from contemporary kings. They make it imper- 
ative, in short, that if there is to be a king over the chosen people, 
he is to reign under the peculiar conditions imposed by existing laws, 
and that the government shall still be recognized as, in the end, 
theocratic. 

14. The objection made by a certain class of critics to this law 
that it is of later origin than the times of Moses, was in fact con- 
cocted after the establishment of the kingdom, is conclusively refuted 
by its contents. No such law defining the succession as one to be 
confined to Israelites and prohibiting the leading of the people back 
to Egypt would have been thought of after the establishment of the 
succession in the line of David and at such a remove from the ex- 
perience of the Egyptian bondage. What the contents of the book 

» Ex. 19 : 6. 2 1 Sam. 8 : 10-19 ; cf. Judg. 8 : 22, 23. 3 Gen. 17 : 16 ; 49 : 10. •» D eu t. 

17 : 14-20. 



196 



CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 



were which Samuel is said to have written and to have laid up before 
the Lord respecting the " manner of the kingdom " it is not possible 
to say. It may have been simply a reproduction of this Deuteron- 
omic law. 

15. That on the change of government it was understood that 
Jehovah was not to exercise any less authority is plain from the 
constitution of the new kingdom. The king was to be one whom 
Jehovah should choose. He was to be anointed by his prophets. 
He was to feed his people in being a prince over them. Above all, 
he was himself to be subordinate to the laws of his country and to 
govern in harmony with them. 1 The selection of the first king from 
the least important family of the least important tribe was, perhaps, 

meant to show that the real sover- 
eign of Israel was still Jehovah. 
It has been thought by some that 
the king among the Hebrews was 
not always anointed, the fact of 
anointing being recorded only in 
the case of a few of them. It is 
quite as likely that the anointing 
was regarded as so much a mat- 
ter of course that it was recorded 
only in those instances where the 
succession was in some way excep- 
tional. 2 

16. Installation of the King. 
— Other ceremonies besides the 
anointing which accompanied the 
inauguration of a king we find 
recorded in the historical books. 3 Surrounded by soldiers he was 
conducted to a public square or the court of the temple, and there 
the ceremonial of anointing took place, the high priest performing 
the rite. The crown was then placed on his head and a copy of the 
law, either that of the king or the code of Deuteronomy, or possibly 
the whole Pentateuch, was put in his hands. When Joash was 
crowned it is said that the high priest " brought out the king's son, 
and put the crown upon him, and gave him the testimony." 4 The 
crown was probably little more than a fillet of gold, possibly stud- 
ded with precious stones. It was a part of the royal costume, and 




Royal Crowns. {After Wilkinson, Layard, 
and Rawlinson.) 

1. Crown of Upper Egypt. 2. Crown of Upper and 
Lower Egvpt United. 3. Assyrian Crown, from Nine- 
veh Marbles. 4. Laurel Crown. 5. Crown of Herod 
the Great. 6. Crown of Aretas, King of Arabia. 



i Dent. 17 : 14-20 ; 
^ 2 Kings 11: -1-18. 



1 Sam. 10 : 1, 24. 
«2 Kings 11: 



2 2 Sam. 19 : 10 ; 1 Kings 1 : 39 ; 2 Kings 11 : 12 ; 23 : 30. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 197 

sometimes worn in battle. 1 After the anointing, crowning, the pres- 
entation of a copy of the law and the exchange of mutual covenants, 
there followed, in some cases, the kiss of homage, the acclamations 
of the people, and the formal seating of the king on his throne. 2 

17. The Law of Succession. — The law of succession as found 
in Deuteronomy 3 refers only to the one circumstance that the king 
must be an Israelite. What practice was followed is not altogether 
clear. It would seem that the king ordinarily named his successor 
during his own lifetime. This we know to have been true in the case 
of David and some others.* Where no such preference had been 
expressed it is likely that the law of primogeniture would be allowed 
some weight. 5 During the minority of a king his mother, in some 
instances, held the regency. 6 The chief functions of the king were 
to act as commander-in-chief of the army and perform the duties of 
a supreme magistrate. In the latter capacity he might give decis- 
ions in cases which were brought before him on appeal from lower 
courts, as well as in such as came to him directly. 7 He seems to 
have had no special jurisdiction over the national judiciary or to 
have been held responsible for it. It was not left to his option to 
execute the laws or to leave them unexecuted. 8 Still less was he re- 
garded as competent to repeal laws which had been previously made. 
In instances where this was attempted by apostate rulers their con- 
duct was visited with the severest reprobation by the prophets. 9 
The subject is the more important since, according to some modern 
theories, the laws of the Pentateuch were brought into their present 
form, after the period of the earlier kings, by some persons unknown. 

18. Hoyal Prerogative. — The king might, on special occa- 
sions, proclaim a fast. 10 He was expected to execute rigorously the 
laws against idolatrous worship ; n but with the ordinary duties of 
the priesthood he had nothing to do. 12 It was his privilege some- 
times, however, to nominate the high priest, provided he kept within 
the line of Aaronic descent. 13 What was done by David in the mat- 
ter of arranging the public services of the sanctuary was something 
for which the Mosaic laws had made no express provision. It 
evinced no disposition on his part to usurp authority which did not 
belong to him. 14 The kings of Israel, in addition to the restraints 
of the laws, were continually under those imposed upon them by 

i 2 Sam. 1 : 10. M Sam. 10 : 1, 25 ; 2 Sam. 5 : 3 ; 1 Kings 1 : 35, 38 ; 2 Kings 9 : 13 ; 11 : 19 ; 

1 Chron. 11 : 3 ; Ps. 2 : 12. 3 D eu t. 17 : 15. 41 Kings 1 : 30 ; 2 : 22 ; 2 Chron. 11 : 21, 22. 

5 2 Chron. 21 : 3. 6 1 Kings 2 : 19 ; 2 Kings 11 : 1, 3 ; 24 : 12, 15. 7 2 Sam. 15 : 2 ; 1 Kings 3 : 17. 
8 Deut. 17 : 19 ; 1 Kings 21 : 4. 9 1 Kings 12 : 33. ™ i Kings 21 : 12. " 2 Kings 18 : 4. 

12 2 Chron. 26 : 18, 19. ™ 2 Sam. 8 : 17 ; 1 Kings 2 : 27, 35. " 1 Chron. 15 : 16, 17. 



198 



CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 



the order of the prophets. They ventured on no important business 
without consulting them, or, in the earlier periods of the monarchy, 
the Urim and Thummim. How dominant the influence of the pro- 
phetical order was in shaping the 
course of the government may be seen 
in the relations which Samuel held to 
Saul, Nathan to David and Elijah to 
Ahab. 1 It can only be explained on 
the theory that the Mosaic laws, how- 
ever inoperative they may have been 
among the masses of the people, were 
still " the power behind the throne." 
19. Income and Emoluments. — 
The income of the king naturally va- 
ried greatly at different periods. It 
consisted in part of presents made to 
him by citizens and strangers. These 
so-called "presents" were often, in 
fact, tribute which was required to be 
paid with more or less of regularity. 
King David was the owner of a con- 
siderable amount of real estate under 
cultivation on the Mediterranean 
coast. He had also large herds of 
cattle, camels, asses and sheep scat- 
tered in various parts of the kingdom. 
This property seems to have been prin- 
cipally acquired in war and accorded 

Assyrian King on his Throne holding a to him as his portion of the Spoils. 2 
Sceptre. (From Monuments at Kouyunjik.) ^VOm 1 Samuel 8 : 10-18, where the 

prophet relates the "manner of the kingdom," he tells the people 
that their king will exact from them service of many kinds, and 
demand a tenth of their flocks. How far a ruler would go in this 
direction might depend quite as much on his caprice as on his actual 
needs. When a tribute was imposed on Israel by Pul of Assyria, 
Menahem, the king, assessed the rich men of his realm to the amount 
of fifty shekels apiece in order to raise it. 3 Jehoiakim of Judah is 
said to have exacted money in a similar way to pay tribute demanded 
by Pharaoh of Egypt. 4 It would not appear that these exactions 




i See also 1 Kings 12 : 21-24 ; Isa. 37 : 21-36. 2 2 Sam. 8 : 2, 7, 8, 10 ; 1 Kings 4 : 21 ; 2 Chron. 
27 ; 5. 3 2 Kings 15 : 19, 20. * 2 Kings 23 : 35. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 199 

were ever made by Israelitish kings except in extraordinary cir- 
cumstances. 

20. Expenses. — In the time of Solomon a tax was paid to the 
government by merchants of other countries who traded in the land. 1 
At the same time his vassal the king of Moab brought him the enor- 
mous yearly tribute of the wool of two hundred thousand sheep. 2 
Solomon also, as we have seen, had trading-vessels, and it is not 
unlikely that he derived a considerable income from his commercial 
enterprises. 3 He certainly needed a large revenue to support the 
state which he kept up. We are told that the daily provision for 
his table was " thirty measures of fine flour, and threescore meas- 
ures of meal ; ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, 
and an hundred sheep, beside harts, and gazelles, and roebucks, 
and fatted fowl." 4 If we consider, in addition, the levies he made 
on the laboring classes to carry out his immense building enter- 
prises, it will appear as a necessary result that the rate of taxation 
was high. During his own reign, and while the w T ealth he had 
received from his father lasted, this was not so seriously felt. Under 
his successor it was sufficiently serious to be made the occasion of a 
revolt on the part of the ten tribes, and ultimately led to the division 
of the kingdom. 5 

21. Household. — The royal household seems always to have 
been large. One of the most important officials whom the king 
kept near him was the historiographer, or chronicler. He is the 
first source of most of the information we have concerning the 
events of Jewish history. He committed to writing not only the 
royal edicts, but all other matters of a public nature thought worthy 
of remembrance. It was his business, too, to keep the king informed 
of what was transpiring in his kingdom. The position of chronicler 
was looked upon as one of the highest honor and responsibility. 6 A 
somewhat similar official, but of a lower grade, was the scribe, or 
secretary. Elihoreph and Ahijah are named as scribes during the 
reign of Solomon. 7 In connection with the military establishment 
there were two other officers who had a place near the king : the 
general commanding, often known as " captain of the host," and 
the chief of the body-guard. 8 The latter was an official common to 
most Oriental courts. 9 He was of the highest rank. Commissions 
of the most delicate and dangerous character were intrusted to the 

i 1 Kings 10 : 14, 15. 2 2 Kings 3:4. 3 1 Kings 9 : 28. * 1 Kings 4 : 22, 23. 5 1 Kings 
12 : 4. 6 2 Sam. 8 : 16 ; 20 : 24 ; 1 Kings 4 : 3 ; 2 Kings 18 : 18, 37 ; Isa. 36 : 3, 22. 7 i Kings 

4:3. si Sam. 14 ; 50 ; 2 Sam. S ; 16 ; 20 : 23 ; 1 Kings 2 : 32 ; 4 : 4. » Gen. 37 : 36 ; 2 Kings 

11:4; 25:8. 



200 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

body of men whom he controlled. The person of the king was in 
their charge, and they executed without intervention his public and 
secret orders. 1 

King David's body-guard, for some reason not clearly understood, 
was known by the name of the " Cherethites and the Pelethites." 2 
Some, considering the words etymologically, have supposed them to 
mean the " executioners and couriers." Others, and the majority, 
have maintained that they were foreign mercenaries, like Ittai the 
Hittite and the six hundred whom he commanded. 3 The latter 
hypothesis is favored by the circumstance that not only have the 
original Hebrew words the usual gentilic ending, but the former one 
is mentioned a number of times in such a connection with the Phil- 
istines as to make their identity nearly certain.* The word Peleth- 
ite might even be a corruption of Philistine. Besides, these people 
appear in Israelitish history just at the time when David succeeded 
in bringing the Philistines into subjection. 5 

Another officer of the royal household was the one who, like Ado- 
niram of Solomon's time, attended to the business of raising levies 
for the public service. 6 Again, there was the king's counsellor, like 
Ahithophel whose counsel to Absalom David sent Hushai the Ar- 
chite to defeat ; and the " king's friend," a more private and intimate 
adviser and companion. 7 There was also an officer answering to 
" keepers of the wardrobe." 8 In two passages of the Revised Ver- 
sion a person is mentioned under the name of " priest," the original 
word being the same as that ordinarily so rendered. In the mar- 
gin of the same version, however, the translation "chief minister" 
is substituted. 9 This is probably correct. It would scarcely be 
expected, from what we know of David, that he would allow one 
of his own sons to usurp an office which belonged exclusively to 
descendants of Aaron. Moreover, in a parallel account of David's 
officials we read, in place of " David's sons were priests," " the sons 
of David were chief about the king." 10 Also in 1 Kings 4 : 5, where a 
list of the officials of Solomon is given, one by the name of Zabud 
is mentioned who " was priest, the king's friend." The root-mean- 
ing of the word rendered "priest" is to stand, and so to minister. 
In these exceptional instances, therefore, it goes back to the prim- 

i 1 Kings 2 : 25, 34, 46. 2 2 Sam. 8 : 18 ; 20 : 23 ; 1 Chron. 18:17. 3 2 Sam. 15 : 18-22. 

4 1 Sam. 30 : 14 •, Ezek. 25 : 16 ; Zeph. 2:5. 5 2 Sam. 8:1. « 2 Sam. 20 : 24 ; 1 Kings 4 : 6. 

7 2 Sam. 15 : 32-34 ; 1 Kings 4 : 5 ; 1 Chron. 27 : 33 ; Isa. 3 : 3 ; 19 : 11. 8 1 Kings 4 : 6. 7 ; 2 

Kings 19:2; 22:14; 1 Chron. 27 : 25-31. • 2 Sam. 8:18; 20:26. » 1 Chron. 18 : 15-17. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 201 

itive sense instead of taking the specific one of serving as a priest or 
minister of God. 

22. Fall of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. — The 
kingdom of the twelve tribes, as is well known, ended with Solomon. 
After his death ten of the tribes set up an independent government 
whose principal capital was Samaria. It lasted about two hundred 
and fifty years, when Samaria was taken and a large body of Israel- 
ites were carried away as captives to Assyria. 1 The kingdom made 
up of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, whose rallying-point was 
the house of David and its capital Jerusalem, holding on with more 
tenacity to the principles of the theocracy, maintained its existence 
for a longer period. But, finally, it too yielded to other influences, 
and so was obliged to succumb to the world-power. Its end came in 
the first quarter of the sixth century before Christ. 2 The captivity 
lasted until the accession of Cyrus to the throne of Babylon, b.c. 
536. By him and his successors the Jews were allowed to return to 
Palestine. The first company, numbering about fifty thousand, were 
led back by Zerubbabel, who was appointed tirshatha, or governor, 
by the Persian monarch. Associated with him were the high priest, 
Joshua, and ten of the principal elders. Twenty-eight years after- 
wards, during the reign of Artaxerxes I., a second company of ex- 
iles, dismissed with the good wishes and generous gifts of their Per- 
sian rulers, returned under the leadership of Ezra. Fourteen years 
later still, B.C. 444, came Nehemiah. 

23. Government Subsequent to the Exile. — The people who 
returned in these successive companies belonged, for the most part, 
to the tribes that had been most recently carried into captivity, that 
is, Judah and Benjamin, which were the tribes, too, that had longest 
kept up their devotion to the institutions of their fathers. jSTo ob- 
stacle seems to have been thrown in the way of those desirous to 
return. The great mass of exiles showed a singular indisposition to 
do so. Some, as we know, remained from choice in the more pro- 
ductive land of their conquerors, though purposing to adhere scrupu- 
lously to the customs of their compatriots in the father-land. There 
were, however, many more, including the majority of the ten tribes, 
who never lost their propensity to idolatry, and so finally sunk out 
of sight as Jews in the heathenism that surrounded them. Repre- 
sentatives of the ten tribes were found among those who returned 
with Zerubbabel and Ezra ; but there is no evidence that as tribes 
they continued to exist after that time. While it was matter of 

i 2 Kings 17:6. 2 2 Kings 25 : 8, 12. 



202 



CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 



frequent prediction with the prophets that the kingdoms of Judah 
and Israel should be a^ain united in the restored house of David, 




these prophecies seem never to have contemplated a complete restora- 
tion. It was uniformly of a remnant that the prediction was made. 1 

» Isa. 6 : 13 ; 10 : 22 ; Micah 2 : 12 ; 5 : 3 ; Zeph. 2:9; Hag. 1 : 12, 14 | Zech. 8 : 6, 1 2. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 203 

24. During the Persian period, B.C. 536-333, the province of which 
Judaea formed a part was under an officer called a satrap. Smaller 
districts, like Judaea itself, were ruled by governors (tirshathas). 
Such a governor was Zerubbabel (whose Persian name was Shesh- 
bazzar), and later, Ezra and Nehemiah. Ample power was accorded 
to these Jewish officers by the Persian monarchs ; but regular tribute 
was required. The exact amount of it is not stated. If Palestine 
was treated like other provinces, and the statements of Herodotus 
are to be trusted, it was no inconsiderable sum, the ground tax alone 
amounting to about twenty talents of silver. 1 Besides this there 
would be taxes for the support of troops and the households of 
officials, including the Jewish governors themselves unless they de- 
clined it. 2 The so-called " Great Synagogue," which existed in this 
period, w T as in no sense a political body, and the functions of the 
high priest were essentially religious. The people no longer at- 
tempted to keep up their former tribal organizations or to occupy 
their original tribal districts. Even the distinction between Judah 
and Benjamin largely disappeared, especially in Jerusalem where 
the chief representatives of both tribes had their home. Only the 
priests and Levites maintained their genealogical lists relatively 
uncorrupted. 

25. During the brief reign of Alexander, the Jews were treated 
with marked favor. The story of Josephus concerning this ruler's 
visit to Jerusalem cannot be accepted as authentic. 3 Undoubtedly, 
however, many Jews voluntarily entered the ranks of his army on 
his victorious march into Egypt. Among his successors, the attempt 
of Antiochus Epiphanes forcibly to Hellenize the Jewish people led 
to an extended revolt and a bitter conflict, which lasted for forty 
years. Largely through the valor and wisdom of the Maccabsean 
heroes, Judas, Jonathan and Simon, the yoke of Syria was at last 
broken and the Jewish commonwealth once more restored. From 
the year in which this event occurred, B.C. 143, the Jews subse- 
quently dated, as well on coins as on private and public contracts, 
their national independence. It is an attractive picture which the 
historian gives of the close of Simon's reign. He " made peace in 
the land, and Israel rejoiced with great joy. And every man sat 
under his fig tree, and there was none to make them afraid. And 
no one was left in the land to fight against them." 4 Great were the 
admiration an.d gratitude felt for Simon by his countrymen. A 
brazen tablet inscribed with a record of his deeds and those of his 

i Herodotus, iii. 91. 2 if eh> 3 . 15> lg> 3 JosepllU g f Antiq _ 11? 8 . 5> il MacC- 14 . n> 12> 



204 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

family was raised to his honor within the precincts of the temple, 
and the office of prince and high priest was made hereditary in his 
family until there should arise a "trustworthy prophet." 1 

26. The Maccabees. — The independent government founded by 
the Maccabsean family lasted about one hundred years, or until the 
year B.C. 63, when Jerusalem was captured and destroyed by Pompey. 
He made Hyrcanus II., of the Maccabsean line, prince and high 
priest, on condition that he make no attempt at revolution and that 
the nation should be tributary to Rome. A Roman governor was 
stationed in Syria, and had a general oversight of affairs in Pales- 
tine. In the year B.C. 57, on account of an insurrection led by 
Aristobulus, the proconsul Gabinius degraded Hyrcanus from his 
political position, and restricted his authority to the temple. In the 
year B.C. 54 another proconsul, Crassus, robbed the temple of ten 
thousand talents in treasures. In the year 40, Antigonus, having 
the Hebrew name Mattathias, succeeded Hyrcanus, with the title of 
king and high priest, but with the same limited authority as his 
predecessor. Three years later, by order of the triumvir Antonius, 
and on the petition of Herod the Great who succeeded him, he was 
beheaded. 

27. The Herods. — Herod was an Edomite, and with him the 
line of succession in the Maccabsean family came to an end. He 
reigned until the year B.C. 4. His authority extended over the whole 
of Palestine, including the provinces of Judsea, Galilee, Persea, and 
what is generally known as Decapolis. It was just before his death 
that our Saviour was born, and several events of the New Testament 
history, notably the slaughter of the children in Bethlehem, occurred 
during his reign. 2 After Herod's death his kingdom was divided 
into four parts, called tetrarchies. Tetrarchy was the name given 
to a government in which four had part. One of these divisions, 
including Judsea, Samaria and Idumsea, was presided over by Arche- 
laus as tetrarch. Antipas, known in the New Testament as "Herod 
the tetrarch," was assigned to Galilee and Persea. The large dis- 
trict east of the Sea of Galilee, embracing Gaulonitis, Itursea, 
Auranitis, Batansea and Trachonitis, fell to Philip II. The fourth 
tetrarchy, governed by Lysanias, consisted of a very moderate terri- 
tory lying between Mount Hermon and Damascus, called Abilene. 
This district did not originally belong to the kingdom of Herod the 
Great. Archelaus and Antipas were both sons of this Herod by a 
Samaritan woman. Philip II. was his son by Cleopatra. Of the 

i 1 Mace. 11 : 11. - Matt. 2 : 1-16. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 205 

Lysanias who is mentioned by Luke as tetrarch of Abilene little is 
knowa. He is not to be confounded with the Lysanius of whom 
Josephus speaks in connection with the reign of Autony and Cleo- 
patra sixty years before. 1 

28. On the removal of Archelaus, in a.d. 6, the important prov- 
inces of Judaea, Samaria and Idu rosea came directly under the 
rule of the imperial government at Rome. A legate of the em- 
peror was sent out to administer their affairs. When our Saviour 
was crucified this legate or governor was Pontius Pilate. He was 
the sixth in the line that had followed Archelaus. In a.d. 41, 
Herod Agrippa I., a grandson of Herod the Great, having previously 
held the tetrarchies of Philip and Lysanias, received from Caligula, 
along with the title of king, the government of all Palestine, includ- 
ing the tetrarchy of Abilene. He is the person of whom we read in 
the Acts under the name of "Herod the king." 2 It was he who 
slew the apostle James, imprisoned Peter, and died in such agony at 
Caesarea not long after. Herod Agrippa II., a son of the former, 
being only seventeen years old when his father died did not at 
once succeed him. But in a.d. 52 he was given the tetrarchies 
of Philip and Lysanias, also with the title of king. He was the 
Agrippa before whom Paul appeared. 3 At this time the province 
of Judaea had been enlarged to include Samaria, Galilee and Peraea, 
and was governed by a Roman procurator whose headquarters were 
at Caesarea. With the destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman 
forces under Titus, a.d. 70, the entire country became politically 
subordinate to Syria and was ruled as a part of that province. 

29. Roman Citizenship. — A few words on the matter of Roman 
citizenship may be of service in understanding a number of incidents 
in the life of the apostle Paul. This franchise was his by birth- 
right. How his father, who was a resident of Tarsus in Cilicia, had 
obtained it, it is not possible to learn. Among the special advant- 
ages possessed by a citizen of Rome were exemption from punish- 
ment before trial, from stripes and physical torture under any cir- 
cumstances, and the power of appeal to Caesar. The privilege might 
be obtained by purchase, by noted military services or by manu- 
mission. More than once the great apostle to the Gentiles availed 
himself of this high political prerogative. 4 According to the tra- 
dition which puts the martyrdom of Peter and Paul on the same 
day, the latter was slain with the sword. 

i Luke 3:1. 2 Acts 12 : 1. 3 Acts 25 : 26. * Acts 16:35-39; 22:23, 30; 25 : 11 ; 26 : 32; 

28:19. 



206 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

30. Throughout the whole of western Asia, during and long after 
the time of Alexander, a process of Greek colonization was going 
rapidly on. Greek cities sprang up in and around Palestine to a 
remarkable extent. About forty of them of considerable import- 
ance are mentioned by historians. In their government these cities 
took for their model those of their own land. A council, often made 
up of several hundred persons, was constituted, to which all matters 
of common interest were by general consent referred. The whole 
of Palestine, however, was not Grsecized. The strictly Jewish sec- 
tions of it may be broadly characterized as made up of Judsea and 
parts of Galilee. In these districts Jews were at least in the ma- 
jority, and formed largely the ruling class. 

31. Civil Regulations in the Time of Christ. — As far as 
the Jewish civil regulations had depended on the constitution and 
relations of the various tribes and families, they necessarily ceased 
when the tribal connections and genealogies of families fell into con- 
fusion. But the important governing body, known already in the 
time of Moses and throughout the Persian and earlier Greek periods 
as the " elders of the city," was most happily adapted to the era of 
the new civilization. 1 In addition to this body it is natural to sup- 
pose that in the larger cities a sort of local court would also be pro- 
vided. The existence of such a court is, in fact, confirmed by Jo- 
sephus. 2 It consisted of not less than seven persons, who took cog- 
nizance of all civil and ecclesiastical questions requiring judicial 
decisions. As in the neighboring Greek communities, the villages 
in Jewish districts were politically subordinate to the adjacent city 
and the smaller cities to the larger ones. For convenience of ad- 
ministration, mostly perhaps for the purpose of raising the taxes 
easily, Judsea, during the Roman period, was divided into eleven 
toparchies, with Jerusalem as the middle point. 

32. The local Jewish court just referred to was originally com- 
posed exclusively of Levites. Later it consisted of a body of scribes 
who by special knowledge and experience were fitted for the respon- 
sible position. Hearings and trials took place in the synagogues, 
and were held ordinarily on market-days in order the better to 
accommodate those living at a distance. Punishment, on convic- 
tion, was not infrequently administered on the spot. 3 Such cases 
alone as involved points about which the judges of the local court 
were not clear were referred to Jerusalem. In the larger places the 

1 Peut. 19 : 12 ; Ezra 10 : 14 ; Judith G : 10, 21. 2 Josephus, Antiq. 4, 8 : 14. 3 Matt. 10:17; 
2 Cor. 11:24. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 207 

number of judges seems to have been greater, the Mishna stating 
that a city which had at least a huudred and twenty men was en- 
titled to a sanhedrin of twenty-three persons. In Jerusalem there 
were several such smaller courts, though they were naturally limited 
and overshadowed in their activity by the Great Sanhedrin. 

33. The Great Sanhedrin. — The origin of the latter body is 
uncertain. The name is of Greek derivation, and its first appearance 
as the title of a Jewish court is after the beginning of the Roman 
dominion. It is highly probable that Sanhedrin is but another name 
for the Senate of which we read occasionally in works of the Macca- 
bsean period and shortly after it. 1 In the New Testament it is often 
mentioned, and continued to exist until after the destruction of Jeru- 
salem. It was composed of seventy-one members, of w T hom one third 
formed a quorum sufficient for the transaction of business. Mem- 
bers were inducted into office by the laying on of hands. An inter- 
esting feature of the meetings was the attendance of a considerable 
number of young men, who thus became acquainted with the details 
of its rules aud methods. Its ordinary meetings, like those of the 
smaller judicial bodies, were held on the second and fifth week-days. 
Probably they might, on emergency, be held daily, with the excep- 
tion of the Sabbath and special holidays. The body was made up of 
priests, elders and scribes. The high priest presided at the sittings. 

Among the priests were included any who had served as high 
priest, as well as members of leading families that had furnished 
incumbents of this office. The elders were generally distinguished 
laymen, but might be priests. The scribes were depended on for the 
interpretation of all abstruse points of law. Both Pharisees and 
Sadducees had seats in the body. In the later times the former seem 
to have had the numerical majority, or at least to have had the 
greater influence. As distinguished from the lower courts the Great 
Sanhedrin was the administrative and judicial body for all matters 
except such as the Roman government claimed jurisdiction over. 
The decision of the Sanhedrin at Jerusalem was binding on Jews 
outside of Palestine, as far as it related to religious matters. For 
the rest, its authority was confined to the eleven toparchies of Judsea. 
The ordinary place of meeting was in one of the buildings connected 
with the temple. Irregular, and especially night, sessions might be 
held elsewhere, the gate of the temple-mountain being closed and 
under strict watch during the night. This probably accounts for the 

i Judith 4 : 8 ; 1 Mace. 12 : 6. 



208 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

fact that our Saviour's trial took place at the palace of the high 
priest. 1 

34. Tribute to Foreign Powers. — Reference has been made 
to the tribute imposed on the Jews by their foreign oppressors. 
After their return from Babylon, with the exception of the brief 
reign of the Maccabsean family they were never exempt from 
foreign taxation. Daring the most of the Persian period the burden 
was comparatively light. 2 Under the immediate successors of Alex- 
ander, also, although the taxes were farmed out to the highest bid- 
der, and room was thus given for the greatest injustice, the total 
tribute demanded amounted only to about thirty thousand dollars a 
year. This does not include, of course, that which the Jews contrib- 
uted for the maintenance of their own religious institutions, or the 
large sums expended for military purposes and the support of a for- 
eign court among them. During the reign of the Seleucidae the 
taxes consisted of a duty on salt, a third of the income of the grain- 
fields, one half the product of all fruit trees, a poll-tax, custom duty, 
and a kind of tribute called crown-money. When Jonathan, the 
Maccabee, procured from Demetrius freedom from taxation, he was 
obliged to pay three hundred talents for the exemption. 3 

How burdensome these foreign impositions were in the time of the 
Herods may be inferred from the fact that the yearly revenue of 
Arehelaus, whose tetrarchy included Judaea and Samaria, is esti- 
mated at two hundred and forty thousand pounds sterling. That 
of Herod the Great, who had a larger extent of territory, was not 
less than six hundred and eighty thousand pounds, and that of 
Agrippa II. was five hundred thousand. " The Romans had a pe- 
culiar way of levying these taxes — not directly, but indirectly — 
which kept the treasury quite safe, whatever harm it might inflict 
on the tax-payer, while at the same time it threw upon him the 
whole cost of the collection. Senators and magistrates were pro- 
hibited from engaging in business or trade ; but the highest order, 
the equestrian, was largely composed of great capitalists. These 
Roman knights formed joint-stock companies, which bought at pub- 
lic auction the revenues of a province at a fixed price, generally for 
five years. The board had its chairman, or magister, and its offices 
at Rome. These were the real Publicani, or publicans, who often 
underlet certain of the taxes. The Publicani, or those who held 
from them, employed either slaves or some of the lower classes in 

1 Matt. 2G: 3, 57. See also Prof. Bissell's work on the Apocrypha (New York, 1SS0), pp. 30, 31. 
•-' Ezra 4 : 13, 20 ; 7 : '24. 3 1 Mace. 11 : 28 ; 13 : 15. 



THE GOVERNMENT. 



209 



the country as tax-gatherers — the publicans of the New Testament. 
. . . Of course, the joint-stock company of Publicani at Rome ex- 
pected its handsome dividends ; so did the tax-gatherers in the prov- 
inces, and those to whom they on occasions sublet the imposts. All 
wanted to make money of the poor people ; and the cost of the col- 
lection had of course to be added to the taxation." 1 

1 Edersheim, Sketches of Jeivish Social Life, pp. 55, 56. 




The Cross in Monogram. 
( Used by the early Christians.) 





Prisoner, bound or chained between two Guards. 
(From an old Roman sketch.) 



Augustus Caesar, Roman Emperor in 
the time of Christ. (Copy of a marble 
statue lately found near Rome.) 



14 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 

1. By Hebrew usage, as recorded in the Bible, it was made a part 
of a ruler's duty to pronounce judicial decisions in all matters brought 
before him. The titles ruler and judge are, in fact, often used synony- 
mously. The supreme Ruler and Judge was Jehovah. All others were 
his vicegerents. " Ye shall not respect persons in judgment," was the 
command of Moses ; " ye shall hear the small and the great alike ; 
ye shall not be afraid of the face of man ; for the judgment is God's." 1 
Taking a case before a judge is spoken of as inquiring of God, or 
going before God. 2 To stand before the one was regarded as equiv- 
alent to standing before the other. " If an unrighteous witness rise 
up against any man to testify against him of wrong doing ; then 
both the men, between whom the controversy is, shall stand before 
the Lord, before the priests and the judges which shall be in those 
days." 3 

2. Earlier Legal Processes. — The simplicity of legal pro- 
cesses in the earlier times has been already referred to. As family 
relations became more and more involved and the unity of the peo- 
ple was more emphasized, heads of families ceased to exercise, to the 
same extent, the ancient right of sitting in judgment in civil mat- 
ters. To Moses, as God's vicegerent and the recognized medium of 
communication with him, this right w 7 as transferred. But already 
loaded down as he was with a multitude of other cares and duties, 
Moses found his strength inadequate for such a task. On the advice 
of Jethro, therefore, a body of men, seventy in number, was con- 
stituted a court for the consideration of all the less important mat- 
ters. Putting together the several accounts of the subject found in 
the Pentateuch, we learn that the body was composed of seventy 
" elders," that is, of men who already represented the nation in an 
official capacity. 4 They were named by the people and inducted 
into office by Moses. 

3. This organization, while having for its first object the consider- 
ation of matters requiring judicial decisions, was clearly intended to 

i Dent. 1:17. 2 Ex. 18 : 15; 21 : G; 22:8. 3 Deut. 19 : 16, 17. 4 Ex. 18 : 13-27; Num. 
11:10,17: Deut. 1:13-18. 
210 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 211 

serve the further purpose of being a kind of official military board. 
This alone can account for the fact that it was made up of men who 
are spoken of as heads over tens, fifties, hundreds and thousands, 
respectively. 1 There can have been no such graded series of courts. 
Each judge or officer was independent in his own sphere. The only 
appeal possible was to Moses himself; and in every such appeal it 
was not the people, but the judge, who carried the case to the higher 
court. If, for any reason, he felt himself incompetent, as for in- 
stance from lack of information concerning facts, or because the 
case involved matters of supreme importance, or because it was 
something new concerning which the law did not definitely speak, 
he applied directly to the lawgiver. Some cases regarded as of 
more immediate public concern continued to be tried by the old 
method, that is, by a full assembly of the elders of the people. 2 

4. Subsequent Changes. — This primitive arrangement for the 
administration of justice came to an end along with the peculiar 
circumstances that called it forth. It was adapted only to the 
earlier periods of the national history. As early as the book of 
Deuteronomy, provision is made for the time when the people shall 
become settled in the land of Canaan : 3 " Judges and officers [assist- 
ants] shalt thou make thee in all thy gates, which the Lord thy God 
giveth thee, according to thy tribes : and they shall judge the peo- 
ple with righteous judgment. ... If there arise a matter too hard 
for thee in judgment, between blood and blood, between plea and 
plea, and between stroke and stroke, being matters of controversy 
within thy gates : then shalt thou arise [i. e., the judge] and get thee 
up unto the place which the Lord thy God shall choose ; and thou 
shalt come unto the priests the Levites, and unto the judge that shall 
be in those days : and thou shalt inquire ; and they shall show thee 
the sentence of judgment : and thou shalt do according to the tenor 
of the sentence. . . . And the man that doeth presumptuously, in 
not hearkening unto the priest that standeth to minister there before 
the Lord thy God, or unto the judge, even that man shall die; and 
thou shalt put away the evil from Israel. " 

5. It is clear that in this provision we have simply an adaptation 
to altered circumstances of those previously made. 4 Like the coun- 
cil of seventy, these judges are to be selected from the elders of the 
people " according to their tribes." They are assigned to positions 
of different importance " in all thy gates," that is, in cities small 

i Ex. 18 : 25. 2 Num. 35 : 24 ; Josh. 20 : 6. 3 D eu t. 16 : 18-20 ; 17 : 8-13. * Ex. 18 : 13-26 ; 
Num. 11 : 16, 24-29. 



212 - CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

aud great. They have the privilege of appeal in difficult cases to 
the priest or judge, or to both together, who might at any time be at 
the head of affairs. This corresponds exactly to the earlier ordi- 
nance, where appeal could be taken to Moses and Aaron as the civil 
and ecclesiastical heads of the nation. As matter of history, more- 
over, we find a tribunal similar to this in existence not long after the 
time of Moses. In the ceremony of rehearsing the law on Mount 
Ebal there are present elders, officers and judges in distinction from 
the rest of the people. 1 It is to this body, apparently, that Boaz 
makes application in his efforts to befriend Naomi and Ruth. 2 

6. The times of the judges being to a considerable extent abnor- 
mal, we find the people, not only in other respects but especially in 
the administration of justice, reverting to primitive usages. The 
ruler, or temporary military leader, by virtue of his office is recog- 
nized as judge ; and since in times of peace this was his principal 
function, the title of judge is accorded to him. Jephthah, for ex- 
ample, is said to have "judged Israel six years;" and after him 
Ibzan of Bethlehem "judged Israel." 3 In Eli the office of judge 
is once more joined to that of high priest ; while after Samuel 
the Mosaic ordinance comes to its full right. In harmony with it 
David appointed a large number of judges and officers, the same 
terms being used for them as in the Deuteronomic law.* 

7. In the Time of Jehoshaphat. — The next change which, as 
far as we are informed, took place in the judiciary, occurred during 
the reign of Jehoshaphat. It is said of him that he " set judges in 
the land throughout all the fenced cities of Judah, city by city, and 
said to the judges, Consider what ye do : for ye judge not for man, 
but for the Lord. . . . Moreover in Jerusalem did Jehoshaphat set 
of the Levites and the priests, and of the heads of the fathers' 
houses of Israel, for the judgment of the Lord and for controversies." 5 
If this were our only information concerning the matter we might 
suppose that, with one exception, the king meant to act in precise 
conformity with the Deuteronomic law. But in the context we ob- 
serve a further departure from the original form in the tribunal con- 
stituted by Jehoshaphat. " And, behold," he says, " Amariah the 
chief priest is over you in all matters of the Lord ; and Zebadiah 
the son of Ishmael, the ruler of the house of Judah, in all the king's 
matters: also the Levites shall be officers before you." 6 This court 
of Jehoshaphat, then, differed from that provided for in Deuter- 

1 Josh. 8 : 33 ; cf. 24 r 1. « Ruth 4 : 1-9. 3 j U( jg. 12 : 7, 8. * 1 Chron. 28 : 4 ; cf. 2G : 29. 
& 2 Chron. 19 : 5-8. « 2 Chron. 19 : 11. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 213 

onomy in three respects. It was composed of priests and Levites 
instead of Levi deal priests alone. It had a civil and ecclesiastical 
head acting at one and the same time, instead of independently. The 
civil head is represented by a family chief of Judah, an officer un- 
known to the earlier legislation, and is siq^ported by the chief of the 
fathers of Israel. 1 

8. It is the more important to note the essential distinction be- 
tween these two forms of judicial procedure, since an effort has been 
made to confound them. Critics who give a later date to many of 
the laws hitherto ascribed to Moses hold that in the present case the 
law of Jehoshaphat's time antedates that of Deuteronomy. But if 
the facts be as we have stated them, this cannot be successfully main- 
tained. The tribunal of Jehoshaphat did not, any more than pre- 
vious ones, exclude the authority of the eldership in matters properly 
belonging to its jurisdiction. When Ahab sought unjustly to pos- 
sess himself of the vineyard of Naboth, it is said that " the men of 
his city, even the elders and the nobles who dwelt in his city, did as 
Jezebel had sent unto them." 2 From this passage and others, it may 
be inferred that in alleged capital offences the judgment of the elder- 
ship was particularly sought. The prophet Jeremiah, complained of 
by the priests and false prophets of his day as worthy of death, is 
cited to answer for his life before the representatives of the whole 
people, and before them he pleads his case. 3 

9. During and After the Exile. — In the apocryphal book 
of Susanna it is assumed that during the Babylonian exile the peo- 
ple of Israel executed justice among themselves according to their 
own usages. 4 It is certain that this privilege was accorded to them 
by their Persian rulers, and to some degree by their successors the 
Ptolemies. 5 Josephus, who quotes Strabo, informs us that to such 
Jews as had found a home in Egypt special places were assigned 
besides those allotted them in Alexandria. " There is also an eth- 
narch allowed them," he says, " who governs the nation ; and dis- 
tributes justice to them, and takes care of their contracts and of the 
laws to them belonging, as if he were the ruler of a free republic." 6 
In Palestine itself local courts continued to exist down to the time 
of the Romans ; and the right of attending to all ordinary civil 
processes was freely granted to the Jews. Several allusions are made 
to these courts in the New Testament. 7 Exactly how 7 they were COU- 
lDeut. 17:12. 2 Deut. 19 : 12; 21 : 19; 25 : 7; 1 Kings 21 : 11. 3 Jer. 26 : 11, 12. * Susan. 

vs. 5, 41. a Ezra 7 : 25 ; 10 : 14. e Josephus, Antiq. 14, 7 : 2 ; 14, 10 : 17. * Matt. 5 : 22 ; 10 : 
17 ; Mark 13 : 9 ; Luke 12 : 14, 53. 



r 



214 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

stitutecl it is not possible to say. In the so-called city of Bethulia 
of the book of Judith three men are represented as its rulers. In 
the same connection, however, a council of elders is mentioned, and 
it is likely that these men are only among the higher officials of 
this body. 

10. In the Time of Christ. — According to the Talmud, the 
local provincial courts were composed of twenty-three members. 
Any place containing a hundred and twenty men — other authorities 
say two hundred and thirty — might have such a court. But it is 
more probable that the size of the bodies also corresponded to that 
of the places in which they were situated. In the larger cities the 
sittings were more frequent than in the smaller ones. Places favored 
with a rabbinical college, like Jabneh where the famous Gamaliel 
once presided, would be likely to entrust to it very largely the ad- 
ministration of justice. Under the Roman government these courts, 
while regarded as competent to try any, even capital, cases, w r ere 
limited in the execution of sentences. Beyond forty stripes they 
were not allowed to inflict any bodily punishment. The Great San- 
hedrin at Jerusalem, which was the highest governing body among 
the Jews as well as their supreme court, has already been described, 
in its main features, in the preceding chapter. 

11. Principles Governing Courts of Law. — The processes 
by which justice was administered among the Hebrews were largely 
dependent on ancient usage. The Mosaic law of course, where it 
spoke, was the highest rule ; but in many cases it was silent. Even 
as it respected the principles on which decisions were to be reached, 
it was far from being a complete guide in civil affairs. The judge, 
accordingly, was often left to that spirit of fairness and wisdom with 
which, from the nature of his office, it was expected he would be 
endowed. It was because so much depended on the impartiality of 
the magistrate that this quality was so strongly insisted on in the 
law. It is said, for example, "Thou shalt not wrest the judgment 
of thy poor in his cause. . . . And thou shalt take no gift : for a 
gift blindeth them that have sight, and perverteth the words of the 
righteous." 1 The law abounds in appeals and exhortations of this 
sort. 2 

A careful examination into all the details of a case was rigorously 
enjoined. 3 In capital crimes, it was not permitted to condemn a per- 
son to death on the testimony of a single witness. Two or three were 
needful ; three, it is likely, when circumstances did not make the 

l Ex. 23:6-8. 2 Lev. 19:15; Deut. 1:16,17; 16:19. »Deut. 13:14; 17:4; 19:18. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 



215 



matter clear without them. By comparing the two passages just 
cited, it will be found that the one in Deuteronomy shows an ad- 
vance on that in Numbers. 1 It is likely that his experience in the 
wilderness had led the lawgiver to see the importauce of modifying 
the original regulation, especially of making it more definite. Jewish 
practice was uniformly based on the Deuteronomic form. 2 It has 
been thought that the apocryphal book of Susanna was written for 
the purpose of illustrating the necessity of more than two witnesses 
in certain cases. Special emphasis was laid on the character of 
witnesses. Besides the ninth commandment, we find numerous other 
laws relating to the subject. 3 If after "diligent inquisition" it was 
found that, a witness had testified falsely, it was required that it 
should be " done unto him as he had thought to do unto his 
brother." The rabbis held that a false witness was only to be put to 
death when the person against whom he had testified had not been 
already executed. This can hardly have been the meaning of the 
original statute. 

12. Place of Trial, etc. — The place of trial, in ancient times, 
was ordinarily near the principal gate 
of the city. 4 Moses heard causes at 
the door of the tent of meeting, and 
Deborah, under a palm tree. 5 In Je- 
rusalem hearings took place in front of 
the temple. The trial was public, and 
as a rule was conducted orally. In the 
case of kings, to whom, especially in 
the earlier times, was accorded the right 
of pronouncing decisions in important 
causes, the court of the palace was the 
place of assembly, or some special room 
within it devoted to the purpose. 6 Parties at variance appeared in per- 
son and pleaded for themselves before the judge. 7 There is no evidence 
that advocates were appointed on the part of the government either to 
make complaint or to defend one who had been incriminated. But 
the cause of the widow, orphan, stranger, and the helpless generally, 
was laid especially upon the heart by the Mosaic laws, and it was 
demanded that nothing favorable to them should be overlooked. 8 A 
person in confinement for a capital offence was brought into court, 

i Num. 35 : 30 ; Deut. 17 : 6 ; 19 : 15. 2 John 8 : 17 ; Acts 7 : 58 ; Heb. 10 : 28. 3 Ex. 23 : 1 ; 
Lev. 19 : 12 ; Deut. 19 : 15-21. * D<nit. 21 : 19 ; 22 : 15 ; Job 5:4; Ps. 127 : 5 ; Prov. 8:3; 22 : 22. 
5 Num. 16 : 19 ; Judg. 4 : 5. 6 i Kings 7 ; 7. 7 Deut. 1 ; 16; 21: 20; 25; 1. 8l sa . 1;17; 
29 : 21 ; Amos 5 ; 10. 




Oriental Court in Session. 



216 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

and others under indictment who did Dot appear when wanted were 
made to do so. The complainant took his station at the right of the 
prisoner. 1 According to Josephus the latter wore a peculiar garb, 
and appeared with dishevelled hair in the way of appeal to the 
sympathies of his judges.' 2 

13. It was necessary to sustain an accusation by facts. Circum- 
stantial evidence was sometimes considered as an aid to a judge in 
reaching an equitable decision where nothing else was available. 3 
In the case of a disobedient son, severe as was the punishment, the 
simple complaint of parents was considered as sufficient evidence of 
guilt, provided both parents were concerned in lodging and support- 
ing it. 4 It has been justly inferred from Leviticus 5 : 1 that wit- 
nesses were put under a certain form of oath. The passage reads, 
"And if any one sin, in that he heareth the voice of adjuration, he 
being a witness, whether he hath seen or known, if he do not utter 
it, then he shall bear his iniquity." This appears to refer only to a 
person who has been summoned as a proper witness, and is actually 
in circumstances to know something about the case. He was adjured 
to speak of whatever he knew concerning it. 5 If he failed to do it, 
being so adjured, he must bear his iniquity, that is, be held guilty. 6 
If he afterwards repented of his silence, he had to make full restitu- 
tion to any one whom he had injured by it and also present a guilt- 
offering in the temple. 7 

14. No Use of Torture. — Applying torture to witnesses was 
never a practice of the Hebrews ; but was introduced, along with 
many other atrocities, by Herod the Great and his successors. 8 
Calling in the aid of prophetical insight in judicial matters was also 
unknown in Israel. In instances where crime was charged and 
legally competent witnesses were not forthcoming, the solemn oath 
of the accused to that effect was accepted as proof of innocence. 
This oath was called the " oath of the Lord," that is, the divine 
name was introduced into it. 9 In somewhat later periods of Israel- 
itish history the following form of imprecation is often met with : 
" The Lord do so unto me," etc. The use of an oath was generally 
attended by some such formality as raising the hand, placing the 
hand on the head or under the thigh of another, dividing a victim 
and passing between the pieces, or appearing before the altar. 10 
Our Lord refers to some peculiar forms of oath, but they were 

i Ps. 109 : 6 ; Zech. 3:1,3. 2 Josephus, Antiq. 14, 9:4. 3 i Kings 3 : 26. * Deut. 

21 : 18-20 ; cf. Ex. 21 : 17 ; Lev. 20 : 9 ; Prov. 19 : 18 ; 30 : 17. & See 2 Chron. 18 : 15 ; Mutt. 
26 : 63. 6 Prov. 29 : 24. 7 Lev. 6 : 5, 6. 8 Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 1, 80 : 2-1. » Ex. 

22 : 1 1. io Gen. 14 : 22 ; 15 : 10-17 ; 24 : 2 ; 47 : 29 ; Ex. G ; 8 ; 1 Kings 8 : 31 ; J or. 34 : IS. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 217 

simply refinements of a later day and of no force in judicial 
matters. 1 

15. Casting Lots. — Casting lots in order to obtain a decision in 
doubtful cases was practiced, to a limited extent, in the early history 
of Israel. 2 It was considered in no sense an appeal to chance, but 
to the supreme Judge. A proverb current in Solomon's time ran, 
" The lot is cast into the lap, but the whole disposing thereof is of 
the Lord." 3 With a single exception, this was the only use of 
extraordinary means for determining the guilt or innocence of an 
accused person. A woman suspected by her husband of adultery 
was subjected to a peculiar trial. The proceedings, which are fully 
detailed in Numbers 5 : 11-31, are probably based on some pre- 
Mosaic custom. Many a modern victim of marital jealousy would 
gladly submit to an ordeal as trying as this to receive a vindication 
as conclusive. A law found in Deuteronomy covers a somewhat 
similar case, but is not to be regarded as a later modification of that 
in Numbers,. as some critics maintain. 4 On the contrary, without 
superseding that of Numbers in the special case it had before it, the 
former emphasizes, in the heavy penalties imposed on the husband 
if he prove a false accuser, a principle of equity there unrecognized 
which should be always understood to rule in like circumstances. 

16. Decisions both Oral and Written. — In the more ancient 
times the decision of the judge was announced orally; at a later 
period it would seem to have been written. 5 The penalty determined 
on was exacted immediately, and, if the offence was not a capital 
one, before the eyes of the judge himself. 6 The death penalty was 
ordinarily inflicted by the whole community ; and since the respon- 
sibility largely rested on the witnesses, the natural solemnity of the 
execution was enhanced by the part assigned them. The usual 
method of putting to death being by stoning, their hands were to be 
first against the condemned man to put him to death, " and after- 
wards the hand of all the people." 7 The case of Stephen's martyrdom 
will be recalled, when the witnesses " laid down their garments [the 
more easily to cast the stones] at the feet of a young man named 
Saul." 8 In the instance of manslaughter the guilty person was 
delivered into the hands of the goel, or avenger of blood, for execu- 
tion. Kings, as we have seen, assumed the right to put to death at 
once those whom they considered amenable to it without waiting for 

i Matt. 5 : 34-36 ; 23 : 16-22. 2 J 0s h. 7 : 14 ; 1 Sain. 14 : 40 ; Prov. 18 : 18. 3 p rov . 16 : 33. 

* Dent. 22 : 13-21. 6 Job 13:26; 31:35; Isa. 10:1. 6 Deut. 25 : 2. ? Deut. 13 : 9 ; 17 : 7. 
» Acts 7 : 58. 



218 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

the forms of law. The perversion of justice on their part, as well as 
the corruption of judges, is one of the most common subjects of com- 
plaint by the prophets. 1 Matters concerning the sale and exchange 
of property, the renunciation, or the establishment, of rights and the 
like, were not brought by the Hebrews into courts of justice. As 
will hereafter appear, they were settled either by mutual agreement 
or by reference to an assembly of elders. 

17. Methods of the Sanhedrin. — The method of procedure 
in trials before the Sanhedrin is especially interesting in view of the 
trial of our Lord by it. Members sat in a half circle. Two secre- 
taries stood before them, one on the right hand, the other on the left, 
to record all opinions expressed. The prisoner was expected to 
appear in humble mien and, as already stated, in garments befitting 
his position. Where the case was one of life and death, it was under- 
stood that the first argument should be in the prisoner's favor. No 
one could speak against him who had already spoken for him ; but 
the reverse was possible. The prisoner was allowed to testify in his 
own behalf. Students of the law who were present were permitted 
to take part, if they had cogent reasons to adduce in favor of the 
culprit. The debate being over, the vote was taken and recorded 
along with the reasons for it. A majority of one was sufficient to 
acquit ; a majority of two necessary to condemn. If no decision was 
reached, additional judges were selected from students of the law who 
were present. The sentence once passed the execution was imme- 
diate. The hasty and notably irregular trial of Jesus on the night 
preceding his crucifixion is the more remarkable in view of the or- 
dinary fairness and even mildness of this judicial body. 

18. Penalties. — Two things served to modify, to a considerable 
extent, Hebrew legislation as it respects the penalties affixed to 
crimes : first, the fact that the national government was a theocracy; 
and second, the institutions and customs which had been inherited 
from the past. To the former circumstance it is due that the pun- 
ishment of certain offences is so much severer than might otherwise 
have been expected ; to the latter, the peculiar form which some 
penalties assume. The general principle on which punishment was 
inflicted is stated with great frequency in the book of Deuteronomy : 
to "put away the evil" from the midst of Israel ; or, as otherwise 
given, that " Israel shall hear, and fear, and do no more any such 
wickedness." 2 The quality and form of punishments were, as far 

1 Isa. 1 : 23 ; Amos 5:12; Micah 3:11; Mai. 3 : 5. 2 Dent. 13 : 5, 11 ; 17:7, 12, 13 ; 19 : 13, 

19,20; 21:8,21; 22:21,22, 24; 24:7. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.. 219 

as possible, fixed iu harmony with the principle that satisfaction was 
to be rendered for the wrong done. Guilt and its requital were in 
some sense to correspond. AVhat the evil man had done, or purposed 
to do, to another, was to be visited in punishment on his own head. 

This is the ethical basis of the so-called lex talionis, which required 
an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. 1 It was never designed, if we 
may judge from Hebrew history, to be carried out literally, except, 
perhaps, in the case of murder and a few other instances of willful 
injury, where retaliation in kind would have a salutary influence in 
checking violence and passion. It seems intended rather to be a 
norm or guiding principle for the authorities, in harmony with 
which just penalties might be visited upon offenders. The human 
law was content to restore the disturbed equipoise of the social order. 
Exact justice was left to God. And our Lord in his utterances, on 
one occasion, over this matter is not to be understood as taking an 
exception to such a principle as used to govern the civil authorities 
in the ancient times. 2 He had expressly stated just before that he 
had not come " to destroy the law T and the prophets." 3 He excepted 
to it only as a rule by which the individual Christian was to be con- 
trolled in his conduct toward his fellow man. In this sphere he was 
to consider himself bound by the higher law r of brotherly love. 

19. If certain forms of punishment found in the penal code of the 
Hebrews appear still, at first sight, disproportionate, the state of 
public sentiment at that period is to be considered in connection with 
the fact above stated, that one of the principal objects of punishment 
with them was that it might serve as a deterrent. The Hebrew laws 
are at least free from those extremes of severity, the refined cruelty 
and the tortures common to other nations of antiquity. It is one 
of their great excellences that they look beneath the outward act 
to its moral quality, the motive that prompted it. They know, for 
example, how to distinguish between murder and justifiable hom- 
icide; between stealing and an innocent harboring of another's goods ; 
between an intentional and an accidental infliction of injuries on the 
person or property of others. Even in the Pentateuch there is 
prohibited one of the most common of ancient practices, the visita- 
tion by human authority upon an offender's family of the penalty 
which belonged only to him. " The fathers shall not be put to death 
for the children," says Moses in Deuteronomy, " neither shall the 
children be put to death for the fathers : every man shall be put to 
death for his own sin." 4 The mysterious influence of heredity is not 

i Ex. 21 : 23 ; Lev. 24 : 17, 18 ; Deut. 19 : 21. 2 Matt. 5 : 38, 39. 3 Matt. 5:17. * Deut. 24 : 16. 



220 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

hereby denied. The inexorable law of cause and effect, by which the 
sins of the fathers are actually visited upon the children to the third 
and fourth generation, is not disputed or repealed. But to fallible 
men there is properly denied the right to trench upon the prerog- 
ative of the Almighty. The divine ways, as the prophet Ezekiel 
shows in speaking of this very matter, are equal ; man's ways are 
unequal. 1 

20. Capital Offences. — By Hebrew law the penalty of death 
was prescribed for a greater number and variety of crimes than is 
now common in civilized countries. It is worthy of note, however, 
that it was never inflicted for wrongs committed simply against prop- 
erty. It was administered in an orderly, though a summary, w T ay, 
no attempt being made to prolong the pain suffered or to render the 
culprit infamous. The motive assigned for a regulation in one of 
the minor forms of punishment seems to have pervaded, in spirit, all 
of them: that every thing should be avoided by which a "brother" 
would be rendered vile. 2 The barbarous cruelties inflicted in time 
of war, and sometimes by so representative a Hebrew as King David, 
are not to be charged against the divinely-sanctioned laws of the 
land. 

Capital offences, according to Hebrew law, were willful murder ; s 
the perjury of a witness by which the life of another was put in 
peril ; 4 smiting or cursing one's parents, even persistent disobedience 
and rebellion on the part of a child; 5 man-stealing; 6 unfaithful- 
ness in wedlock, as also unnatural sexual connections and the grosser 
forms of incest ; 7 idolatry, witchcraft and the false assumption of 
prophetic inspiration; 8 sabbath-breaking; 9 and a refusal to submit 
to the decisions of the regularly-constituted legal authorities. 10 The 
heinousness of most of these offences consisted in the fact that they 
dishonored the people which had been chosen as God's heritage, and 
hence were calculated to destroy the foundations on which the the- 
ocracy rested. 

21. Punishment, how Administered. — Capital punishment was 
inflicted in a number of ways, though chiefly by stoning. When 
the life of the murderer was taken by the avenger of blood, it might 
be by means of a sword, spear, or any other weapon he chose. Those 
condemned to death by kings were ordinarily executed with the 
sword. 11 In the earlier periods the same was true under the law 

* Ezek. 18:20. 2 o e ut. 25:3. 3 Gen. 9 : 6; Ex. 21 : 12. * Deut. 19: 16-21. » Ex, 
21 : 15, 17 ; Lev. 20 : 9 ; Deut. 21 : 18-20. o Ex. 21 : 16 : Deut. 24 : 7. » Lev. 20 : 10-21. 8 Ex. 
22 : 18 ; Deut. 13 : 5 ; 17 : 2-6. 9 Ex. 31 : 14, 15; Num. 15:32-36. » Deut. 17 : 12, 13. » 1 Sam. 
22 : 17 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 15 ; 4 : 12 ; 1 Kings 2 : 25. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 221 

when on account of the large number executed, or for any other 
reason, death by stoning was impracticable. 1 Even w T hen the sword 
was resorted to the method was not beheading. This was sometimes 
practiced in time of war, but not as a punishment for crime before 
the Roman period. 2 A condemned criminal who was to be stoned 
was taken outside of the camp or city. 3 The witnesses threw the 
first stones, having first laid off their outer clothing and placed their 
hands on the culprit's head as a symbol that he was to bear his guilt. 4 
In the talmudic times a stupefying drink, composed of myrrh and 
frankincense, was previously administered to him. After the wit- 
nesses, the whole community participated in the execution. 

Of two other forms of capital punishment known in the East, 
strangulation and burning, the former is not mentioned in the Bible. 
It is thought by some that it is always meant when the form of the 
death penalty is not otherwise specifically mentioned. But there is 
no positive evidence that it was ever in use among the Jews before 
the times of Herod. Burning was prescribed in the Mosaic law as 
the punishment for certain gross forms of sexual immorality ; but 
it seems most likely that in all cases it followed death by stoning, 
as we know it did in some cases. 5 The talmudic practice was to 
put to death by strangulation and to burn afterwards. The burn- 
ing, however, among the later Jews consisted only in inserting a 
lighted wick in the dead man's mouth. Since bodies w 7 ere sometimes, 
as an added indignity, burned after death, so they w T ere sometimes 
suspended on a tree or gibbet after death for the same reason. 6 Im- 
paling was a common punishment in Persia. 7 It w r as one of the 
provisions of the Deuteronomic law that a body hanged must be re- 
moved and buried before nightfall of the same day, on the ground 
that otherwise the land would be defiled. 8 Reference is made to this 
fact in Galatians 3 : 13, where it is said of Christ that he became a 
curse for us : " for it is written, Cursed is every one that hangeth on 
a tree." 

22. Crucifixion. — Crucifixion was the most degrading, inhuman 
and painful of all the forms of ancient punishment. It is not cer- 
tain that any examples of it occur in the Old Testament. 9 In New 
Testament times it w 7 as practiced by the Romans in the case of slaves 
and such as were guilty of rebellion or highway robbery. It was 

» Deut. 13 : 15. 2 1 Sam. 17 : 51 : Matt. 14 : 10 ; Acts 12 : 2. 3 Lev. 24 : 1-4 ; Num. 15 : 35 ; 
1 Kings 21 : 10 ; Acts 7 : 58. * Lev. 24 : 14 ; Deut. 13 : 9 ; 17 : 7 ; Acts 7 : 58. 5 Gen. 38 : 24 ; 

Josh. 7 : 15. e Deut. 21 : 22 ; 2 Sara. 4:12; Josh. 10 : 26. 7 Ezra 6:11; Esth. 5 : 14 ; 7:9. 

» Deut. 21 : 23. 9 But cf. Gen. 40 : 19 ; Num. 25 : 4; Deut. 21 : 22, 23; Josh. 8 : 29 ; Ezra 6:11; 
Esth. 2 : 23. In all these cases impaling is probably referred to. 




222 , CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

ordinarily preceded by scourging ; in our Saviour's case it was at- 
tended by other brutalities. Although there are different forms of 
crosses, it is conceded that the one used in the crucifixion of our 
Lord consisted of one plank or beam crossing another at right angles 
near its top. This cross was laid upon the condemned to be borne 

by him to the place of execution. 1 
Arriving there his garments were 
stripped off and a stupefying drink 
usually administered. This drink 
was refused by Jesus. 2 The con- 
demned was then nailed to the cross 
by nails passing through the hands 
and feet. Whether this was done 
i:i 0] . Lli before or after placing the cross in 

the ground, it is not possible to 
say ; probably both methods were in use. Though exposed to the 
most excruciating pains, the poor victim often failed of relief by 
death for many hours ; even sometimes, it is said, until the third day. 
It was a source of wonder to Pilate that our Lord expired so soon. 3 
As a concession to Jewish custom, the Romans permitted the bodies 
of Jewish criminals to be buried at nightfall of the same day. 4 
Hence death was hastened by other violence. 5 Could the divine 
abhorrence of sin have been expressed in a more emphatic way than 
by permitting Jesus Christ, his eternal Son, to be crucified ? " Him 
who knew no sin he made to be sin on our behalf; that we might 
become the righteousness of God in him." 6 

23. Peculiar Treatment of the Homicide. — The provision 
for the punishment of murder is so peculiar as to deserve special 
notice. It is a restriction and a regulation of the old custom of 
blood revenge. By this custom the next of kin to the murdered 
man slew the murderer wherever found. This was naturally the 
occasion of many abuses, the innocent often suffering for the guilty. 
Moses provided for six cities of refuge, three on each side of the 
Jordan, to any one of which a person suspected of murder might 
flee. Having here a safe asylum, a judicial inquiry was instituted 
into his case. If he were found guilty of the crime charged, he was 
delivered over to the avenger of blood for execution. If acquit- 
ted of the crime of actual murder, but still chargeable with some 
form of homicide, he was compelled to remain where he was until 

i. John 19:17. " Mark 15 : 23. a Mark 15: 44. < Deut. 21 : 23. & John '.9:31. 

6 2 Cor. 5 : 21. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 223 

the death of the high priest. He might then return unmolested 
to his own home. The later rabbins applied this law only to the 
case of Hebrews killed accidentally or otherwise. They reasoned 
that a stranger resident among them being so killed, would have no 
one to avenge him ; hence the internment of the murderer was un- 
necessary. Other laws of the Pentateuch must be depended on to 
right the wrong. 

The importance of this law is shown in the fact that while the 
subject is kept in view in the earliest phases of the pentateuchal legis- 
lation its particulars are not settled till the later. In harmony w 7 ith 
the law, too, we find in the historical portions of Deuteronomy 
Moses designating three of the cities of refuge while leaving the other 
three, which lay in the still unconquered territory, for Joshua to se- 
lect. The concession is also here added that, if the people by their 
obedience and faithfulness should come into possession of the whole 
region originally promised to Abraham, three other cities might be 
named, making nine in all. Such an enlargement of area came fo'r 
a brief period in David's reign ; but the people of Israel never really 
occupied the new district. 1 

24. Mutilation. — Next to the infliction of the death penalty, 
punishment by mutilation was perhaps the most severe of any known 
to Hebrew criminal law. It was a very common form of penalty in 
antiquity ; but unless we are to take the so-called lex talionis, an eye 
for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, literally, which is unlikely, there is 
only one instance where it is enjoined. For a gross form of im- 
modesty a woman was liable to have her hand cut off by the public 
executioner. 2 No case of the infliction of such a punishment occurs 
in the biblical books. 

25. Flogging. — Punishment by flogging, very common in later 
times, seems not to have been so widely in use among the earlier 
Hebrews. In the form of a correction for servants and children, 
however, there are frequent references to it in the Bible. 3 In some 
instances also it is prescribed in the Mosaic code as a penalty for 
w T rong-doing. 4 Possibly, as the most natural method of punishment 
and one well known in Egypt, it is meant to be applied in some cases 
where the law is silent concerning the penalty. Doubtless, too, a 
Hebrew judge had the prerogative to order it though not specifically 
enjoined. The guilty person in an assault or altercation was flogged ; 
and, in addition to a fine, flogging w T as enjoined for a man who made 

i Gen. 15 : 18 ; Ex. 21 : 13 ; Num. 35 : 1-34 ; Deut. 4 : 41-43 ; 19 : 1-13. 2 Deut. 25 : 11, 12. 

a Deut. 21 : IS : 2 Sam. 7 : 14 ; Prov. 13 : 24 : 23 : 13. * Lev. 19 : 20 ; Deut. 22 : 18 ; 25 : 1-3. 



224 



CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 



a false charge touching the fidelity of his young wife. The mode of 
inflicting the punishment is definitely laid down in Deuteronomy. 
The instrument used seems to have been either a rod or a whip made 
of leathern thongs. At a later period we read of a number of in- 
genious contrivances to render the lash more effective in giving pain. 1 

It is a fact of value as confirming 
the Mosaic origin of the Deuter- 
onomic code that the order of pro- 
cedure it enjoins is like that used in 
Egypt as illustrated on the monu- 
ments. The culprit was made to 
lie flat on his face, and while his 
hands and feet were held, the blows 
were laid on his bare back. The 
course adopted by the Jews of a 
later time, on the other hand, was 
to tie the culprit to a stake by his 
hands. He w T as then stripped to the 
waist and the blows were inflicted 
by a servant of the court. The rab- 
bins prescribed flogging for offences 
against the ceremonial law, for re- 
fusing to obey the Sanhedrin as well 
as for teaching doctrines not ap- 
proved by them. The smaller judi- 
cial bodies and even the ruler of the synagogues had authority to 
impose this punishment; 2 and it is a marked illustration of their 
scrupulosity respecting the law rather than their humanity that they 
always stopped short with thirty-nine strokes, though the code al- 
lowed them forty. 3 

26. The Fine. — Another form of judicial punishment known to 
the Hebrews was the fine. It was appointed, for the most part, for 
offences against property. 4 The fines did not accrue to the benefit 
of the state, but were paid over as compensation to the person ag- 
grieved. What is said in Amos 2 : 8 of designing priests to whose 
advantage fines which they had imposed were used is clearly ex- 
ceptional and illegal, as was much else that was allowed in the king- 
dom of the ten tribes. Fines ranged from one hundred shekels 
to thirty shekels or less. If an ox were stolen and disposed of, the 




Koman Scourging. 



1 Judg. 8 : 7, 1G ; 1 Kings 12 : 11, 14 ; Isa. 10 : 2C>. 2 Matt. 10 : 17 ; 23 : 34 ; Mark 13 : 9 ; Acts 

5 : 40 ; 16 : 22 ; 20 : 1 1. » 2 Cor. 11 : 21. * Cf. Deut. 22 : 29. 






THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 225 

offender was obliged to restore fivefold, and fourfold for a sheep. If, 
however, in either case the animal was still in the hands of the thief, 
that is, if he had not yet arrived at the point of parting with it for 
his own benefit, he was required to restore it and one more besides. 1 
Were the thief unable to make restitution he might be sold as a slave, 
but (as Josephus asserts) only to the man whom he had defrauded. 2 

A thief discovered breaking into one's premises at night might be 
killed with impunity. 3 It was otherwise if the act took place in the 
daytime. The ow T ner of an ox goring a person to death always suf- 
fered the loss of the ox. Its flesh might not be eaten. If the owner 
had been aware of the animal's evil propensity and had not used 
due precautions, he was obliged to pay, in addition, whatever sum 
was laid upon him, " for the redemption of his life." 4 If the person 
gored were a servant, the one entitled to his services was paid thirty 
shekels. 5 Where a person obtained property by fraud, suppression 
of the truth, retaining what had been found, or by false sw r earing, 
if he were found out, or subsequently repented of the act, he was 
fined one-fifth of the value of the property and required to present 
a ram as a guilt-offering before the Lord. 6 One having the property 
of another temporarily in his hands was expected to make restitu- 
tion if it was lost or stolen. Should it be torn in pieces by w T ild 
beasts, evidence of the fact was sufficient. This requirement seems 
to have been an unwritten law in the patriarchal period; 7 at least 
we find Jacob going even beyond it in his dealing with Laban. 

In Proverbs 6 : 31 a sevenfold restitution is spoken of. But seven 
is probably used here in the sense of a great deal, or as much as 
possible. Zacchseus, ou the other hand, who lived in New Testa- 
ment times, was thinking of the requirements of Roman law when 
he said, " Behold, Lord, the half of my goods I give to the poor ; 
and if I have wrongfully exacted aught of any man, I restore four- 
fold." 8 This was the amount of restitution demanded by Roman 
law in such cases. The difficulty, however, was that the Roman 
law r was very seldom executed save in cases like that of Zacchseus, 
where it was done voluntarily. As already noted above, the stealing 
of a person for the purpose of selling him was punishable under 
Hebrew law 7 by death. It made no difference whether the sale was 
actually consummated or not. The Deuteronomic form of the law 
is either a modification of the other in the interests of mercy or is 
intended to put upon.it its proper limitation. 9 

i Ex. 22:1,4. * Ex. 22 : 3 ; Josephus, AnHq. 4, 8 : 27. 3 Ex. 22: 2. * Ex. 21 : 28-30. » Ex. 
21:32. e Lev. 6:1-7. 1 Gen. 31 : 39 ; Ex. 22 : 12. ' » Luke 19 : 8. 9 Ex. 21 : 16 ; Deut. 24 : 7. 
15 



226 



CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 




Inner or Lower Prison. 



27. Imprisonment. — The earliest Hebrew laws knew nothing 
of imprisonment as a punishment for crime. Even in Genesis and 
Exodus we read of persons in Egypt who are imprisoned ; but even 
here they are only such as are temporarily detained until they have 

been tried or are executed. 1 He- 
brew criminal law in its funda- 
mental ideas seems out of harmony 
with such a custom. Simply to 
deprive a person of his liberty and 
support him at the expense of 
the state was punishment neither 
in the form of retaliation nor com- 
pensation. Detention in a city of 
refuge was not properly speaking 
imprisonment; nor was such occa- 
sional limited restraint as was put 
upon individuals for the preven- 
tion of evil, or in time of war. 2 
The imprisonment of the prophets, especially of Jeremiah, was of a 
similar extraordinary character. 3 It was used by unscrupulous 
rulers as a means of checking their activity when it was considered 
hostile to the government. It is not until after the Babylonian exile 
that we find imprisonment resorted to as a punishment for crime real 
or supposed. Authority for this purpose was given to Ezra by the 
Persian monarch. 4 At the beginning of the Christian era we find the 
Sanhedrin, by Roman custom and authority, making use of the same 
means in their treatment of Christians. 5 The case of imprisonment for 
debt mentioned in Matthew is to 
be explained in the same way. 6 
As places of incarceration, 
cisterns were sometimes used. 
In certain instances, even where 
other places were at hand, par- 
tially-filled cisterns were pre- 
ferred for the sake of enhancing 
the punishment. This was not- 
ably true when Jeremiah was let down with cords into the cistern 
of "Malchiah the king's son." 7 Buildings intended for prisons 

1 Gen. 39 : 20 ; 40 : 3, 20 ; 42 : 17, 19. 2 1 Kings 2 : 36. 3 2 Chron. 16 : 10 ; Jer. 20: 2 ; 29 : 
26; 32:2; 88:1. 4 Ezra 7: 26. & Acts 4: 3; 5: 18; 8:3; 9: 2; Hcb. 10 : 34. « Matt. 18:30. 
TJer. 38:6, 7. 




Roman Chain for Binding Prisoners. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 227 

or houses of detention were known in Egypt at an early period. 1 
In Ahab's time a part of the governor's house was so used. 2 There 
was also in the same period a similar place in connection with 
the temple. 3 The use of manacles and fetters was also common in the 

on one occasion w T ere cast into the inner jfc HaH^ '' ll 

in the same way at times. This was one of B|^Jr gC^^ jjl 

to suffer. 7 Our Lord's words in Matthew —*SilllilMir W 

25 : 36 imply that prisons might be visited Punishment by stocks. 

by the friends of those confined there. It seems to have been 
true at all periods. 8 The apostle Paul at Rome, even while chained 
to a soldier, was otherwise comparatively free, dwelling in his own 
hired house, and employing himself much as he saw fit. 9 In his 
case, however, the rigors of imprisonment were much lightened from 
the fact that he was a Roman citizen. 

28. The Ban. — A singular punishment known as the ban was a 
feature of Jewish law from the earliest times. It was applicable not 
only to persons but -also to things. The New Testament term for 
the ban is anathema. A person or thing under the ban was under- 
stood to be devoted to God, originally in the sense that it was to be 
given up to destruction. In the time of the conquest almost every- 
thing found in Canaan was so devoted. Likewise the apostasy of a 
person, or even of a whole Israelitish city, to idolatry, exposed them 
to this fate. Indestructible things, like silver and gold, subject to 
the ban, were generally confiscated for the uses of the sanctuary. 10 

At the time of the exile the principle of the ban was somewhat 
modified. It became a form of punishment which w r as directed 
against anything seeming to threaten the existence of the theocracy ; 
while for persons the penalty was no longer death, but excommun- 
ication. Ezra, for example, threatened it against any who failed to 
appear at a public assembly called to consider the subject of mixed 
marriages ; all his substance was to be forfeited (devoted), and he 

i Gen. 39 : 20 ; 40 : 3. 2 j er . 37 . 15) 2 0. 3 j er . 20 : 2 ; 29 : 2G. * 2 Sam. 3 : 34 ; Job 36 : 8 ; 
Ps. 149:8; Jer. 52:11. * Judg. 16 : 21. 6 Acts 16 : 24. * Jer. 29 : 26 (margin). 8 j er . 
32:8. 9 Acts 28 : i6, 23. ™ Deut. 13 : 16; Judg. 20 : 4S ; 21 : 10. 



228 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

himself separated from the congregation of the captivity. 1 It is in 
the form of excommunication, and particularly as a punishment for 
alleged heresy or a refusal to appear before the ecclesiastical author- 
ities, that the ban appears in the New Testament. 2 According to the 
Talmud there were two forms of excommunication — a lighter and 
a heavier. The former did not necessarily exclude from the public 
services of the synagogue, but only from certain privileges. It lasted 
for thirty days. During this time the excommunicated person was 
obliged to enter the synagogue by a certain door, leave his hair 
untrimmed, and might approach no Jew, except of his own family, 
within four cubits. The heavier excommunication excluded from 
every kind and degree of intercourse with the Jewish community. 
The apostle Paul makes a number of allusions in his epistles to this 
peculiar ordinance of the later Judaism ; 3 and it would seem that 
the earlier Christian communities were not uninfluenced in their 
rules by it. 4 

29. Laws Concerning Property. — The subject of property 
among the Hebrews has been already treated to some extent in con- 
nection with other topics. In the Hebrew commonwealth, where the 
political and social factors in the matter of property, as in other 
things, were so intimately blended Avith the moral and religious, it is 
not always easy to determine to what special category, technically 
considered, a series of laws belongs. It is certain that no laws bet- 
ter represent the characteristic principles of the Mosaic legislation 
or serve more to separate the Hebrews from all other nations of an- 
tiquity than those relating to property. 

The Hebrew property laws were peculiar in the first instance from 
the fact that they were intended to be largely an agricultural people. 
The son of Sirach, doubtless referring to Genesis 2 : 15, speaks of 
husbandry as " appointed by the Most High." 5 Throughout Hebrew 
history we see among its foremost characters those engaged in such 
pursuits. Moses in early life, like David, followed the flock. Elisha 
was called to the prophetic office from the plough ; and Amos from 
his cattle and the dressing of sycomores. The most common images 
of earthly prosperity in the Old Testament and the most attractive 
pictures of the Messianic future are drawn from the labors, the joys 
and the hopes of the husbandman. 

Previous to the occupation of Canaan we naturally hear little of 
rights in land. As far as such rights were acknowledged they con- 

1 Ezra 10:8. 2 John 9 : 22 ; 12 : 42 ; 16:2; cf. Luke 6 : 22. 3 jjom. 9 : 3 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 22 ; 

Gal. 1:8. 4 2 Thess. 3:11; 2 John 10. & Ecclus. 7 : 15. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 229 

sisted simply in a tacit understanding that land anywhere found 
unoccupied might be used for pasturage. As soon, however, as the 
people of Israel had, by divine command, dispossessed the original 
inhabitants and gained a sufficient foothold in Canaan to justify the 
proceeding, the whole land was divided among the twelve tribes 
according to their relative numbers. To each family in a tribe, in 
fact, was assigned some proportionate part of the inheritance as its 
own. On this land the family planted itself and from it w r as ex- 
pected to gain its subsistence. In the course of time the trades, a 
limited commerce, and other pursuits of a more complicated civil- 
ization, sprang up to occupy the attention of considerable numbers 
of the people. But at first they settled in Canaan as a nation of 
agriculturists. 1 If the historical parts of the Pentateuch did not 
assure us of this, it might be almost as safely inferred from its laws. 
Claiming to originate m this period and to be intended for the new 
nation in its new land, they are stamped throughout with allusions 
to agricultural pursuits. They assume everywhere the fact that 
each man is a holder of land. Critics, accordingly, who would 
transfer large portions of this legislation to periods long subsequent 
to the age of Moses have this indisputable fact to reckon with. 

30. In the Mosaic laws two great principles are made to underlie 
the ownership of land. First, such ownership, as far as it existed 
in any tribe or family, could not be permanently alienated or lost ; 
while secondly, andrmost important, it was authenticated by God 
himself in whom the real proprietorship inhered. A family once 
put in possession of a tract of land was insured that possession as 
long as the Hebrew commonwealth existed. It might voluntarily 
dispose of it by gift, exchange or sale ; it could not do so beyond the 
year of jubilee. An interesting case is recorded in Numbers where 
special regulations are made by Moses for the purpose of securing 
the provisions of this law. The daughters of a man who had died 
without leaving a son to be his heir appeal to Moses for the prop- 
erty. Their request is granted ; but subsequently, at the instance of 
relatives, they are prohibited from marrying outside their own tribe, 
lest the property into whose possession they had come should be 
alienated. 2 

The forfeiture of property for political offences in Ezra's time is 
exceptional, as in the case of Mephibosheth whose possessions David 
gives to Zeba. 3 Many facts in Israelitish history, on the other hand, 

I Lev. 25 : 23 ; Num. 25 : 54, 65. 2 Num. 27 : 4 ; 36 ; cf. Josh. 17 : 3 f. 3 2 Sam. 16:4; 19 : 29 ; 
Ezra 10: 8. 



230 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

show how sacredly this law was guarded and how great was its po- 
litical and moral significance. 1 It contributed perhaps as much as 
any other to the stability of the Hebrew people, a matter of no small 
difficulty in the ancient times : a matter of prime importance when 
their providential mission is considered. It contributed powerfully 
also to consolidate the nation and to give a special emphasis to its 
community of interest. 

31. Bearings of the Year of Jubilee. — The limitations put 
upon a landed proprietor by the sabbatical year have been already 
considered ; those connected with the year of jubilee may be noticed 
here. The year of jubilee followed the seventh successive sabbatic 
year, that is, was celebrated every fifty years. The law for it is 
found in Leviticus. 2 The question of the actual year meant to be 
observed, whether the last of seven sabbatic years, that is, each 
forty-ninth year, or the year following, that is, the fiftieth, has been 
much discussed. The letter of the law plainly supports the latter 
view, and the sole objection to it is the supposed infelicity of having 
a year of jubilee follow immediately a sabbatic year. We find a 
precisely similar arrangement, however, in the sabbatic weeks of the 
ordinary year preceding pentecost. It was the fiftieth day after the 
beginning of harvest, and was the concluding festival of it, as the 
passover had marked its beginning. The year of jubilee seems to 
have been looked upon as a pentecostal year ; in other words, was 
meant to have the same relation to the several years preceding it that 
pentecost held to the several sabbatic weeks. 

On the year of jubilee, as on sabbatic years, the land was left un- 
cultivated, that which it spontaneously produced being free to all. 
At this time, too, any Israelite who had been in bondage was set free, 
unless he had become so already through another regulation. 3 Such 
a law as the latter might have been expected, as at this time every 
Israelite was permitted to " return to his possession and to his 
family." Since most of the servitude in Israel was brought about 
by pecuniary indebtedness, it naturally terminated at a period when 
debtors were again put in possession of the land which had origin- 
ally been allotted to them. The value in money of any piece of land 
was reckoned with reference to its greater or less distance from the 
year of jubilee, the use of the land alone, as already intimated, being 
at the disposal of its original owner. It was a privilege, moreover, 
that was accorded to him or the next of kin, to recover a piece of 

i Ruth 4:3; 1 Kings 21 ; cf. 2 Kings 8:3; Jer. 32 : 7 ; Ezek. 7 : 12, 13 ; 46 : 1G. 2 L ev . 25 : 8- 
1G, 23-55 ; 27 : 1G-25 ; cf. Num. 3G. » Ex. 21 : 2-6 J Petit. 15 : 12-18. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 231 

laud temporarily alienated, by paying to the temporary proprietor a 
sum corresponding to that which he had given, less the number and 
value of the crops he had taken from it. A more equitable arrange- 
ment could scarcely have been thought of. 

Real estate in walled towns was made an exception to this law. 
An owner who had sold was permitted to redeem his property pro- 
vided he did so within a year, but not afterwards. Levitical cities, 
on the other hand, as well as all the property in them, came under 
the provisions of the general law, reverting back to their original 
owners in the year of jubilee. Land in the suburbs of such cities 
could not be disposed of, or traded with in any manner. In case a 
man dedicated property to the Lord he was permitted to redeem it 
provided he added to it one-fifth of its value as reckoned by the num- 
ber of crops it would produce before the year of jubilee, and pro- 
vided, also, he redeemed it before that period. If not then reclaimed, 
or before that period, it was understood to be devoted forever. 1 The 
details of these exchanges of property probably varied at different 
times. Josephus informs us that the temporary proprietor of a piece 
of land made a settlement with its owner at the year of jubilee on 
the following terms : After making a statement of the value of the 
crops he had obtained from the land and of what he had expended 
upon it, if his receipts exceeded the expenses the owner got nothing ; 
but if the reverse was true, the latter was expected to make good 
the loss. 2 

32. Ownership op Land. — The other fundamental principle of 
the Hebrew constitution with respect to property in land, that the 
real owner is God, is, as we have said, even more important in its 
political and moral scope. 3 In the New Testament it perpetuates 
itself in the teaching of more than one of our Lord's parables and 
in the universal point of view from which all property is regarded. 
Man is looked upon as a steward only of that which he is said to 
possess. The real proprietor is the world's Creator and Governor. 
So it was in early Hebrew history. Tribe and family received what- 
ever rights they had in property from him. They were simply his 
tenants on the land they improved. For this tenancy acknowledg- 
ment was due. And here it is that we find the occasion and ethical 
relevancy of such laws, among many others, as those of the sab- 
batic year ; the first fruits ; the generous provisions made for the 
poor, everywhere represented as the wards of God ; and for the 
priests and Levites, whose portion is directly declared to be that 

i Lev. 27 : 19-25. 2 Josephus, Antiq. 3, 12 : 3. 3 Lev. 25 : 23. 



232 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

which otherwise would have fallen to him. 1 The Bible doctrine 
concerning rights in landed and other property, as thus denned, it is 
needless to say gives no encouragement to those of modern com- 
munists. Their purpose rather was to secure such rights inalienably, 
under certain restrictions, to individuals, not to ignore or deny them. 
Above all their purpose was to make God's will and government 
supreme in human affairs. 

33. Originally business transactions involving the transfer of 
property were carried on orally between the parties concerned, either 
by themelves or in the presence of witnesses. 2 In some cases a sym- 
bolical form, like drawing off the sandal, walking over the property, 
or giving a present, was used. 3 But even in the days of Jeremiah 
we begin to read of written contracts. 4 They were prepared in du- 
plicate at the time of sale, and signed not only by the principals but 
also by witnesses. One of these was carefully sealed and preserved 
as an official document. The other was retained for use. 

34. Security of Property. — For the security of property, 
there are to be found a considerable number of laws in the Penta- 
teuch besides those already mentioned. The removal of landmarks, 
for example, was looked upon as a peculiarly heinous offence. 5 An 
adequate recompense was required in case a field or its products had 
been injured by the trespassing of another's cattle. The same was 
true of a fire causing damage, whether maliciously set or not. 6 Grain 
or other produce of a neighbor's field might be taken for immediate 
use, but nothing carried away. 7 Equitable provision was made for 
instances where money, goods or animals entrusted to another were 
stolen or in some way injured or lost. 8 Anything found, the finder 
was compelled by law to restore to its owner, including cattle gone 
astray. The fact that the owner was a personal enemy was not al- 
lowed to interfere with the practical working of the law. 9 A person 
injuring or killing another's cattle was expected to make full resti- 
tution. 10 If he had dug a pit and had failed to cover it, satisfaction 
was demanded for any trouble caused by his neglect. 11 Of a some- 
what different character, but governed by the same general princi- 
ple, is the law in Deuteronomy demanding care in building a house, 
so that lives may not be imperilled. 12 

35. Both humane and economic principles ruled in the Mosaic laws 
respecting the treatment of animals. Cross-breeding was forbidden, 

i Num. 18 : 20. 2 Gen. 21 : 28-30 ; 23 : 3-18. » Dent. 11 : 24 ; Ruth 4:7; Ps. 60 : 8. * Jer. 
32 : 1-15 ; 1 Mace. 14 : 48. 6 Deut. 19 : 14 ; 27 : 17 ; Job 24 : 2 ; Prow 22 : 28 j 28 : 10 ; Hos. 

5 : 10. e Ex. 22 : 5, 0. 7 Pent. 23 : 25 ; Luke 6:1. 8 e x . 22 : 7-1",. » Ex. 23 : 4 ; Pout. 
22 : 1. io Lev. 24 : 19-21. " Ex, 21 : 34. li Pent. 22 : 8. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 



233 



as well as ploughing with an ox and an ass yoked together. 1 Oxen 
while threshing were not to be muzzled. 2 Dam and offspring might 
not be killed on the same day, or the young removed from its mother 
before the end of a week, or be cooked in its mother's milk at any 
time. 3 A sabbath of physical rest was accorded to the laboring 
beast. 4 An animal fallen down under its burden was to be helped 
to its feet, no matter whose it was. 5 A law prohibiting the return 
of foreign slaves seeking asylum in Israel is especially noteworthy. 
They were allowed to dwell unmolested, wherever they chose, 
within the bounds of the Holy Land. 6 Near this time Rameses II. 
made a treaty with the Hittites especially stipulating that such 
slaves should be restored to their Egyptian masters. 7 Here, too, the 
Lord put a difference " between Egypt and Israel." 8 

i Lev. 19 : 19 : Deut. 22 : 10. 2 D eu t. 25 : 4. s Ex. 23 : 19 ; Lev. 22 : 27, 28. * Ex. 20 : 10 ; 
23 : 12 ; Deut. 5 : 14. & Ex. 23 : 5 ; Deut. 22 : 4 ; cf. 1 Cor. 9 : 9, 10, 6 Deut. 23 : 16. • Rec. 
of the Past, iv. p. 31. 8 Ex. 11 : 7. 





Coin of Antiochus Epiphanes. 




Flagellum or Roman Scourge. 



Putting Out the Eyes of Captives. 
(From. Assyrian Tablets.) 



CHAPTER X. 

THE ARMY. 

1. It is sometimes said that the Hebrews were a warlike people. 
It would be more correct to say that their political constitution and 
laws were such as to make war for them often a religious duty. War 
is nowhere represented in the Bible as a good in itself. It was to 
be undertaken only on God's command, and only against such as 
had proved themselves incorrigible enemies of him and of his peo- 
ple. It was inaugurated with religious rites, was always subject to di- 
vine direction and was carried on under the strict rules of discipline. 
Such rules of discipline, moreover, were not left to the moment of 
action or the arbitrariness of a casual leader. They were written 
down in detail among the perpetual statutes of the nation before 
any war was entered upon. It is worthy of attention, too, that while 
there is a foreshadowing of future military operations in the earlier 
books of the Pentateuch, it is in the book of Deuteronomy that we 
chiefly find reference to them. This book is largely made up of 
addresses by Moses delivered in the land of Moab just before the 
Jordan was crossed and the holy crusade against the idolaters of 
Canaan entered upon. What was more natural than that, to a con- 
siderable degree, they should be occupied with military affairs ? The 
matter thus exactly fits the circumstances under which the dis- 
courses purport to have been uttered. 

The legislative portion of Deuteronomy opens with specific in- 
structions concerning what was to be done the moment the people 
of Israel set foot upon the soil of Canaan. " Ye shall surely destroy 
all the places, wherein the nations which ye shall possess served their 
gods, upon the high mountains, and upon the hills, and under every 
green tree : and ye shall break down their altars, and dash in pieces 
their pillars, and burn their Asherim [images of Astarte] with fire ; 
and ye shall hew down the graven images of their gods ; and ye 
shall destroy their name out of that place." 1 Anything more thor- 
oughgoing than this could not well have been written. And it ought 
not to be difficult to understand the spirit underlying such instruc- 
tions, or to find grounds, in the character of the God revealed in 

1 Pent. 12 : 2, 3. 
234 



THE ARMY. 235 

the Scriptures and in the circumstances of the Israelitish people, 
justifying them. 

2. War against the Canaanites. — In the first instance, the 
war inaugurated in Canaan by the chosen people was a war of ex- 
termination ordained by Jehovah against heathenism in its most 
degraded and offensive form. It was directed against a certain 
limited class of persons only dwelling within a certain limited area. 
A different method was pursued with other peoples not properly 
coming under the designation of inhabitants of Canaan. 1 "But of 
the cities of these peoples," it is said, " which the Lord thy God 
giveth thee for an inheritance, thou shalt save alive nothing that 
breatheth : but thou shalt utterly destroy them ; the Hittite, and 
the Amorite, the Canaanite, and the Perizzite, the Hivite, and the 
Jebusite, as the Lord thy God hath commanded thee." 2 This was 
the authorization; but the motive of the command is also given: 
" that they teach you not to do after all their abominations, which they 
have done unto their gods ; so should ye sin against the Lord your 
God." 3 That is to say, in the second instance, the war inaugurated 
by Israel in Canaan was for the purpose of acquiring a land clear of 
idolaters as well as of idols. In the case of the Canaanites there was 
plainly but one alternative : either to destroy them utterly or to leave 
them in the land as tributaries. The latter course was obviously im- 
possible if the divine purpose respecting Israel was to be carried out. 

With the execution^of Jehovah's ban on the seven nations, the 
war of conquest practically came to an end. Henceforth the mil- 
itary operations of Israel, even those of David and his successors, 
were of a defensive character. One of the severest judgments visited 
upon the nation appears to have been occasioned by a desire to enter 
upon offensive warfare with the surrounding peoples. 4 

3. Original Composition of the Army. — The division of the 
people in the wilderness into companies of tens, fifties, hundreds and 
thousands, with rulers over each division, was no doubt originally 
intended as a convenience in the management of internal affairs. It 
had special reference to civil matters. These rulers were to be able 
men, such as feared God, men of truth, " hating unjust gain." Their 
business w T as to "judge the people at all seasons." 5 But, as we have 
already seen, these divisions, with their respective heads, were made 
to serve another purpose also. They became the basis and norm of 
a military organization. Somewhat later these very rulers are spoken 
of as " captains," " officers of the host," and we find them acting as 

iDeut. 20: 10-14, 19, 20. 2 D eu t. 20 : 16, 17. 3 Deut, 20 : 18. * 2 Sam. 24. & Ex. 18: 21, 22. 



236 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

such in an engagement with Midian. 1 At first, then, the whole peo- 
ple were understood to compose the army of Israel. Afterwards, 
laws were made defining more exactly its limits and determining 
who might be excused in time of battle. 

4. From Numbers 1 : 3 it would appear that the whole male pop- 
ulation over twenty years of age, if capable of bearing arms, were 
liable to military duty. They were expected to be present at the 
place of muster when summoned. Complete lists of such persons 
were kept by the shoterim, or registrars. We are not informed in 
the Bible concerning the limit of military age upward. Probably 
it was fifty, in conformity with that of the Levitical service ; but 
Caleb did not lay down his weapons until he was more than four 
score years of age. 2 It was made the duty of the registrars, also, to 
address the assembled levies ; retain or dismiss those whom they 
found eligible or ineligible for active service ; divide them into com- 
panies and battalions ; bring them into battle array in the presence 
of the enemy ; and designate appropriate leaders for them. They 
acted, however, to some extent under prescribed rules. They prob- 
ably respected as far as practicable the original division into tens, 
fifties, hundreds and thousands. We are even informed on what 
principles they were permitted to excuse any from serving. 3 

5. A priest was also present at every such mustering of the host, 
one specially designated for the purpose, whose province it was to 
encourage the people, especially assuring them that it was the Lord 
their God who went with them to fight against their enemies, and 
that, accordingly, they should not fear, nor tremble, nor be affrighted. 
Phinehas acted in this capacity in the war with Midian just men- 
tioned, " with the vessels of the sanctuary and the trumpets for the 
alarm in his hands." 4 It is easy to see that such an arrangement 
as this can only have been an exceedingly primitive one. In fact, 
it would have been possible only in the earliest stages of the com- 
monwealth and before the rise of the empire. It consequently offers 
one of the strongest of incidental proofs against the theory of some 
modern critics, who assign to the deuteronomic code a much later 
date than that commonly given it. 

6. At first the Israelitish army was composed wholly of infantry. 
This is to be inferred from a passage in Deuteronomy where the peo- 
ple are exhorted not to be afraid, in time of battle, of chariots and 
hordes. 5 Such a charge would have been an anachronism in any 

i Num. 31 : 14. °- Num. 14 : 38 ; 2G : G5. 3 Dent. 20 : 5-9 ; cf. 24 : 5. * Deut. 20 : 2-4 ; cf. 
Num. 31:6. & Deut. 20:1. 



THE ARMY. 237 

period after Solomon. 1 Up to his time the use of horses had ap- 
parently been looked upon as prohibited by Mosaic law. 2 In fact, 
Joshua was directly commanded to cut the hamstrings of those 
taken in battle and to burn the chariots. 3 David was the first to 
make an innovation in this respect, reserving, on the occasion of a 
war with the Syrians, a hundred of the chariot-horses captured. 
After this time, too, the higher officials seem to have ridden, on some 
occasions, on asses and mules. 4 Solomon was the first Hebrew king 
to establish a distinct cavalry arm of the military service. 

7. The Israelitish Army in Canaan. — Subsequent to the 
settlement in Canaan, the men of war were summoned by messengers 
sent throughout the country, by the blast of a trumpet, or by planting 
signal-flags on elevated spots. 5 Warlike expeditions were generally 
undertaken in the spring. 6 During the period of the judges, to re- 
pel an invasion, make a foray, or avenge a wrong, it was customary 
to call only on such a number of the men of war belonging to adja- 
cent tribes as might be deemed sufficient. It is said, for example, 
of Ehud that he "blew a trumpet in the hill country of Ephraim, 
and the children of Israel went down with him from the hill country, 
and he before them." 7 Barak led forth, in the same way, the men 
of Naphtali and Zebulon against Sisera. 8 Gideon, in his battles, 
had soldiers belonging principally to the northern tribes ; and Jeph- 
thah those dwelling east of the Jordan. 9 This method naturally 
gave occasion to no little tribal jealousy. We do not learn that 
the soldiers of this early period wore any uniform or were paid 
wages. The first intimation of anything like a commissariat appears 
in Judges 20 : 10 ; but it was probably only a temporary arrangement. 
There is one instance noted where provisions were sent from their 
home to soldiers in the field. 10 The high figures mentioned in con- 
nection with some of the armies of Israel need not surprise us when 
we consider that it was often a levy of the entire male population. 

8. In the early times, before any military operations were under- 
taken, counsel was asked \)f God through the Urim and Thummim 
or of a prophet. 11 Sacrifices, also, were in some instances offered; 
and until David's time the ark of the covenant accompanied the 
army. 12 The first notice we have of anything like a standing army 
in Israel is in the time of Saul. He is said to have gathered a force 

i 1 Kings 9: 19; 10:26. * Deut. 17 : 16. 3 Josh. 11 : 6, 9. 4 2 Sam. 13 : 29 ; 18 : 9. 5 j u a g . 
3:27; 6:34,35; 7:24; 1 Sam. 11:7; 13:3; Jer.4:5, 6; Ezek. 7 : 14. 6 2 Sam. 11 : 1. i Judg. 
3:27. 8j u( jg. 4:5-10. 9 Judg. 6 : 34, 35 ; 11 : 5, 6. w i Sam. 17 : 18. n Judg. 20 : 27 ; 
1 Sam. 14:37; 23 : 2; 1 Kings 22:6 ; 2Chron.l8:4. 121 Sam. 4: 4; 7:9; 13:9; 14: 18; 2 Sam. 
11 : 11 ; Jer. 6 : 4 (margin) ; Joel 1 : 14. 



238 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

of three thousand men. A part of them were taken directly from 
the different tribes, and were supplemented by volunteers. 1 This 
very procedure had been predicted by the prophet Samuel when the 
people demanded a king. 2 In fact, as things theu were, a king could 
hardly dispense with a body of soldiers who should continually be 
at his call. David increased the comparatively small standing 
army of Saul a hundred fold; at least this would be the sum of 
the several divisions which are said to have served him month by 
month. 3 Besides this force, there was also in his time a royal body- 
guard — the Cherethites and Pelethites — and a life-guard, composed 
of six hundred picked men. In addition to the regular army there 
was, in time of war, a levy of troops made from the people accord- 
ing to the emergency. Rehoboam gathered a force of one hundred 
and eighty thousand men from the two tribes of Judah and Benja- 
min alone. 4 Armies twice, and even three times, as numerous are 
mentioned in the subsequent history. 5 It is to be inferred from sev- 
eral passages that some form of maintenance at the public expense 
was provided for Israelitish soldiers after the introduction of a stand- 
ing army. 6 Notices occur, too, of public buildings answering the 
purpose of arsenals. 7 

9. The Army in the Royal Period. — In its general features, 
the organization of the army remained much the same in the royal 
period as it had been in the time of the conquest. 8 The tribes, while 
they existed, usually followed the tribal banner. 9 On the basis of 
these and the smaller divisions already spoken of, larger ones were 
formed, answering to the modern army corps, whose leaders acted 
with considerable independence in the discharge of appointed duties. 10 
A commander-in-chief was over the whole. The hiring of foreign 
mercenaries for purposes of war was introduced by David, and oc- 
casionally imitated by succeeding kings. In the time of the Macca- 
bees it greatly increased, and in that of Herod the Great the army 
was made up almost entirely of them. In case a people with whom 
Israel was in conflict and its property were under the ban, the bootj 
secured was often a source of considerable income. This might, of 
itself, have been a sufficient inducement to secure the services of 
foreign soldiers. The rule of division that we find obtaining under 
David was that a certain fixed proportion belonged to the king. 11 
One half of the remainder was allotted to the soldiers, and one half 

i 1 Sam. 13:2; 14:52; 24:2. 2 1 Sam. 8 : 11, 12. 3 1 Chron. 27 : 1. * 1 Kings 12 : 21, 

& 2 Chron. 13:3; 14:8. o 1 Kings 4 : 27 ; 2 Chron. 26 : 14. 1 1 Kings 14 : 28 ; Cant. 4 : 4 8 1 
Sara. 8:12; 17:18; 18:13; 22:7; 29:2; 2 Sara. 18:1; 2 Kings 1:9; 1 Chron. 12:14. » Num. 
2:1-64. i«l Sara. 11:11; 2 Sara. 10:9-14; 18:2. " 2 Sara. 8 : 7. 



THE ARMY 



239 




Ancient Eoman Sol- 
dier, with Shield, Spear 
and Sword. 



Captives before a Medean King. {From a Bas-relief at 
Persepolis.) 




Impaling Captives ; Warriors in Coats of Taking a City by Assault, with Scaling- 

Mail, with Bows and Battering-ram, attack- ladders. At foot: Captives led away. {After 
ingaCity. [From a Tablet in Palace at Nimrud.) Layard; Kouyunjik. 



240 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

of it to the rest of Israel. 1 Of both, however, tribute was required 
for the priests and the services of the sanctuary. 

10. The Koman Army. — Light will be thrown on several pas- 
sages of the New Testament from a few facts concerning the Koman 
army. It was made up of divisions called legions, each legion being 
under command of an officer called a chiliarch. The legion was sub- 
divided into ten cohorts, the cohort into two maniples, and each 
maniple into two centuries, made up of a hundred men or less. 2 
The officer known as centurion appears several times in the New 
Testament history. 3 A guard of Roman soldiers often consisted of 
four men, or a "quaternion." The hours for standing on guard were 
arranged according to the watches of the night. As reckoned by 
the Romans, there were four such watches ; hence, sixteen men 
were required for the entire night. 4 An instance is mentioned where 
the guard on duty are stationed, a part outside, and a part inside, 
the prison where those were confined who were to be watched. 5 

11. Preliminaries of a Battle. — According to Hebrew law 
and usage, before an attack was made upon an enemy there was to 
be generally a prelimiuary conference looking to a peaceable settle- 
ment. If this failed, war was declared in a formal manner. 6 Here 
and there hints are given respecting the special preparations made 
for a conflict of arms. 7 The army was first put in order of battle. 
Just what this was we are not informed. A division into three 
columns, apparently for assailing the hostile force in its centre and 
on its two flanks, is several times mentioned ; but also, one of two, 
and of four, divisions. 8 The rear was protected by a special guard. 
During the march its office was to pick up the stragglers. 9 The 
prophet Isaiah alludes in one passage to the "wings" of an army. 10 
Bodies of soldiers represented on the monuments of Egypt appear in 
closed columns of eight ranks, with six, ten or more men in each rank. 
The same is true of the Assyrian army as far as it concerns the mass- 
ing of men in compact ranks. A column advancing to conflict was 
preceded by two ranks of spearmen. Next to them was a rank of 
bowmen. Behind them were the slingers. Spies were often sent out 
in advance of movements to learn the strength and positions of the 
enemy, 11 Night attacks, with skillfully-divided forces, were not in- 
frequent. 12 

i Num. 31 : 27 ; cf. 1 Sam. 30 : 24, 25. 2 Acts 10 : 1 ; 21 : 31. 3 Matt 8 : 5 ; 27 : 54 ; Acts 10 : 22. 
4 John 19 : 23 ; Acts 12 : 4. 5 Acts 12:6. 6 Deut, 20 : 10 ; Judg. 11 : 12; 2 Kings 14 : 8. » Isa. 
21 : 5 ; Jer. 46 : 3. 8 Gen. 14 : 15 ; Judg. 7 : 16 ; 1 Sam. 11:11; 2 Sam. 18 : 2 ; 1 Kings 20 : 27 ; 2 
Mace. 8:22. 9 Gen. 49 : 19; Num. 10 : 25; Josh. 6 : 9, 13. 1° Isa. 8 : 8. " Josh. 2 : 1 ; Judg. 
7:10, 11; 1 Sam. 26:4. M Gen. 14:15; Josh. 10:9; 11 : 7; Judg. 7: L6-18; 2 Sam. 17:1. 



THE ARMY. 241 

The beginning of an engagement was signalized by the blast of a 
trumpet, 1 accompanied by the shouts of the combatants. 2 Strata- 
gems of various sorts were resorted to, including the ambuscade, 
feints, and circumvention or attacks in the rear. 3 Settling ques- 
tions in dispute by a contest of chosen champions from either army 
seems to have been confined to the earlier periods. 4 Fighting in any 
case consisted mostly of hand-to-hand combat, where much depended 
on physical strength, agility, aud swiftness of foot. 5 The recall, like 
the charge, was sounded by trumpets. 6 Deeds of valor were often 
highly rewarded by presents and personal honors, and a victory was 
celebrated with the greatest demonstrations of joy. 7 Captured weap- 
ons and other trophies were sometimes hung up as memorials in the 
sanctuary; at other times they were buried in their graves with the 
fallen heroes. 8 • 

12. Treatment of Prisoners. — The cruelties practiced in an- 
cient warfare are well known. The monuments of Egypt and As- 
syria abound with illustrations of them. The Assyrians were accus- 
tomed to collect the heads of all those slain in battle, and by the 
size of the pile estimate the extent of the victory. The Egyptians, 
in a similar way, cut off and numbered the hands of their slaugh- 
tered foes. At the same time, those taken prisoners were often sub- 
jected to the severest tortures. They were impaled, skinned alive, 
their tongues torn away and their eyes gouged out. No pain or in- 
humanity was too great to be inflicted on a captive taken in war. 
Those whose lives were spared, including women and children, were 
bound together like so many cattle, and driven off, scantily clothed, 
bareheaded and barefooted, to be held or sold as slaves. (See illus- 
trations, pages 233, 239.) 

13. The Israelites, it must be remembered, lived in the midst of 
these barbarous surroundings. If they differed at all from their 
neighbors and those with whom they waged war, it was wholly due 
to the restraints which the spirit and letter of the Mosaic regulations 
imposed upon them. 9 The reasons justifying extreme measures with 
the seven nations and Amalek have already been given. It was in 
the last analysis a matter of duty and loyalty to Jehovah. Com- 
pare page 235, Sec. 2. The Mosaic statutes nowhere concede, even 
against Canaanites, the liberty of indulging in the refined cruelties 

i Num. 10 : 9 ; 2 Chron. 13 : 12 ; 1 Mace. 1G : 8 ; 1 Cor. 14: 8. 2 Ex. 32 : 17 ; Josh. 6: 20 ; 2 

Chron. 13 : 15. 3 j 0P h. 8 : 11-19 ; Judg. 7:16; 2 Sam. 5 : 23. * 1 Sam. 17 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 14. 

5 2 Sam. 1 : 23 ; 2:18; 1 Chron. 12 : 8. 6 2 Sam. 20 : 22. 7 £ x . 15 : 1-21 ; Judg. 1 : 12 ; 5 ; 

Josh. 15 : 16 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 25 ; 18 : 6 ; 1 Chron. 11 : 6. « 1 Sam. 21:9; 31 : 10 ; 2 Kings 11 : 10 ; 
1 Chron. 10 : 10 ; Ezek. 32 : 27. 9 2 Sam. 8 : 2 ; 2 Kings 6 : 22 ; 2 Chron. 28 : 8-15. 
16 



242 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

of which we have just spoken. As a matter of fact, the Hebrew 
soldiery appears to have been noted for its exceptional humanity; 1 
and if the Bible records not a few examples of a contrary practice, 
they are given as matters of truthful history, which the reader, with 
the ethical standard even of the Old Testament before him, is ex- 
pected to condemn. As already noticed, for warfare with other 
than Canaanites definite rules are prescribed in the Pentateuch. 
Wars of aggression are not, however, referred to. The Israelites 
were not expected to engage in such wars ; in fact, never did so. 
They were wars undertaken in self-defence to obtain, or hold in peace, 
the possessions which God had granted them. In Deuteronomy we 
find a regulation concerning female captives taken in war. It is 
characterized by a spirit of the utmost humanity and consideration. 2 

14. 'Weapons. — It is proper to suppose that the weapons of war 
used by the Hebrews were in general like those of other ancient 
nations. In both the Old and New Testament there are passages in 
which a considerable number of them are named. For example, in 
the account of Goliath of Gath we learn that he had a " helmet of 
brass upon his head, and he was clad with a coat of mail ; and the 
weight of the coat was five thousand shekels of brass. And he 
had greaves of brass upon his legs, and a javelin of brass between 
his shoulders. And the staff of his spear was like a weaver's beam. 
And his spear's head weighed six hundred shekels of iron : and his 
shield-bearer went before him." 3 In like manner in the Epistle to 
the Ephesians the apostle Paul makes incidental allusion to nearly 
all the pieces of a Roman soldier's equipment : " Stand therefore," 
he says, " having girded your loins with truth, and having put on 
the breastplate of righteousness, and having shod your feet with the 
preparation of the gospel of peace ; withal taking up the shield of 
faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the 
evil one. And take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the 
Spirit, which is the word of God." 4 

15. The Shield. — Noting first the weapons of defence, the shield 
is that most frequently mentioned in the Bible. It was of two kinds, 
which are distinguished by separate words ; a small and light one, 5 
and another of a size sufficient to protect the whole body. 6 In some 
cases, notably in that of Goliath, an attendant bore the shield of 
the warrior. Concerning the exact form of the shield borne by 
Hebrew soldiers we are not informed in the Scriptures. The Egyp- 

i 1 Kings 20: 31. 2 p (H it. 21 : 10-14. 3 i Sam. 17 : 5-7 : of. 2 Chron. 26 : 14 ; Neh. 4 : 13, 

16 ; Jer. 46 : 3. * Eph. 6 : 14-17. & 1 Kings 10 : 16, 17 ; 2 Chron. 9 : 16. « p s . 35 . L >. 



THE ARMY. 243 

tian shield, as a rule, was oblong, rounded or pointed at the top, but 
-with square corners at the bottom. It was carried by means of a 
handle near the centre of the side next the person. The Assyrian 
shield, on the other hand, was ordinarily round, though it also ap- 
pears in other shapes on the monuments. In sieges, for example, 
Assyrian soldiers are represented as carrying large four-cornered 
shields with a sort of roof on the top for the protection of the head. 
The Koman shields were also of two kinds. One of them was small 
and round. The other consisted of a wooden frame protected above 
and below with iron, covered with hide, and had in the centre of the 
outside a rounded projection of iron. 

Most ancient shields, including those of the Hebrews, were doubt- 
less made in the same way, having a frame of wood or wicker-work 
which was covered with hide. We read, for example, of shields 
being broken and burnt, as also of their being anointed, that is, 
oiled, in order to make the leather that covered them supple and 
glistening, as well as to protect it from dampness. 1 Shields were 
also variously ornamented. It is likely that those mentioned by the 
prophet Nahum as " made red" were covered with copper or bronze. 2 
This was common with the Jews of a later day, as it was with Ho- 
mer's heroes. 3 Specimens of such bronze shields, from the ruins of 
Babylon, are now on exhibition in museums. In Isaiah we read of 
uncovering the shield.* When not in use it seems to have been pro- 
tected by some light covering. In time of peace it was kept in an 
arsenal. 5 Troops garrisoning a fortress suspended their shields upon 
its outer walls, possibly in token of possession. 6 On great public 
occasions shields, as a symbol of power, were sometimes borne in 
precession. It was for this purpose that Solomon " made three hun- 
dred shields of beaten gold . . . and put them in the house of the 
forest of Lebanon." 7 The shields of gold taken by David from 
Hadadezer were probably few, and carried only by those in imme- 
diate attendance on the king. 8 Simon, one of the Maccabsean heroes, 
is said to have sent a golden shield of the weight of a thousand 
minas to " confirm the treaty with the Romans ;" 9 and Judas the 
Maccabee adorned the front of the cleansed temple, after its profana- 
tion by Antiochus Epiphanes, with crowns of gold and w 7 ith shields. 10 
Both were doubtless symbolically employed. 11 

16. The Helmet. — The helmet is rarely mentioned in the Old 

i 2 Sam. 1 : 21 ; Ps. 76 : 3 ; Isa. 21:5; Ezek. 39 : 9. 2 Nah. 2:3. 3 Josephus, Anliq. 13, 

12:5. * Isa. 22:6. 5 2 Chron . 26 : 14. 6 Cant. 4:4. i 1 Kings 10 : 17 ; 2 Chron. 12:9. 
s 2 Sam. 8 : 7 ; 1 Chron. 18 : 7. 9 1 Mace. 14 : 24, io 1 Maco. 4 : 57. " Gen. 15 : 1 ; Deut. 
33 : 29 ; Ps. 3 : 3 ; 7 : 10. 



244 



CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 




1, Egyptian, and 2, Assyrian Short Dag 
ger. (From Slabs in British Museum.] 





A Roman Centurion, with Helmet 
and Sword. 




Egyptian Shields, Spear and Sword. 

(Aj'ter Rosell'aii.) 




1, 2, Assyrian Swords, and 3, Daggers. 
(From Nineveh Monuments.) 



1, 2, :», Egyptian Battle-axes, and 
4, 5, Spear Heads. ( From Rosf.Uini and 
Champollion.) 



THE ARMY, 245 

Testament. It seems Dot to have been considered essential to a sol- 
dier's equipment in the earliest times. Uzziah was the first king of 
Israel to provide helmets for his army. 1 Egyptian soldiers, more- 
over, of the monumental period, wore on the head only a close-fitting 
cap of leather or of felt ; though this was sometimes covered with 
strips of metal. But in the seventh century B.C. they seem to have 
adopted a more elaborate protection ; at least Jeremiah's allusion to 
them would suggest this. 2 With the Assyrians the case is different. 
With the exception possibly of some of the light-armed troops, no 
Assyrian warrior was considered fully equipped without the helmet. 
It was of various shapes and materials, though generally consisting 
of a round cap, either wholly of leather or of leather supplied with 
iron bands. Sometimes it was entirely covered with metal. From 
the apocryphal books we learn that the Syrian soldiers with whom 
the Hebrews came in contact during the Maccabsean period were 
also provided with metal helmets. 3 

17. Armor. — The coat of mail likewise was a device known to 
the most ancient peoples. It is named in the Bible in connection 
with Goliath. 4 The Hebrew for it there, literally rendered, would 
be " breastplate of scales." The Egyptian and Assyrian monuments 
represent their kings as protecting themselves in this way when in 
battle. In later times a coat of mail appears to have been worn by 
ordinary soldiers. 5 The most complete form of it was a garment 
like a shirt, but longer and without sleeves, covered over with metal 
scales. In this form it was probably worn only by kings and nobles. 
The common soldier had either a simple jacket of the same material, 
or protected himself by binding strips of leather, sometimes covered 
with metal scales, around the more exposed parts of his body, always 
excepting the arms, which were left free. Large quantities of metal 
scales once used for armor have been found in the ruins of Nineveh. 
Each scale is a separate thin piece of iron, from three to four inches 
in length. At one end it is square, at the other round. The Hebrew 
king Uzziah is said to have provided his soldiers with coats of mail ; 
but they were probably of the less elaborate sort. 6 Saul and Ahab, 
on the other hand, would naturally have had the best which the skill 
of the time could provide; 7 but this did not prevent the latter from 
receiving his death-wound by means of an arrow, which entered be- 
tween the lower armor and the breastplate. 

18. Greaves, or armor for the legs, are mentioned in the Old Tes- 

l 2 Chron. 26 : 1 4. 2 j er . 46 : 4. 3 1 Maec. 6 : 35. * 1 Sain. 17:5. 5 j Pr . 46 : 4, 62 
Chron. 26 : 14 ; cf. ^eh. 4 : 16. U Sam. 17 : 3b ; 1 Kiugs 22 : 34 ; 2 Chron. 18 : 33. 



246 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

tament only as a part of the equipment of Goliath. They were not 
very commonly used by soldiers in ancient times ; not at all, as 
far as we know, by the Hebrews. The Assyrian heavy-armed sol- 
dier of a later day wore, beside the sandal, a sort of armored stock- 
ing or leathern boot, fastened by strings of the same material. In 
Isaiah 9:5a literal translation of the Hebrew would be, " every boot 
of the booted warrior." The Komans, in the time of our Lord, wore 
only the ordinary sandal bound beneath the foot. This fact is sug- 
gested by the Greek in Ephesians 6 : 15, where the feet are spoken 
of as " shod," literally, " under-bound," " with the preparation of 
the gospel of peace." 

19. The Bow. — The principal offensive weapons of the ancients 
were the bow and arrow, and sling, for fighting at a distance, and 
the sword, spear and lance, for hand-to-hand conflict. The bow was 
used not only by the common soldier, but by the charioteer and per- 
sons of the highest rank. Its possible effectiveness may be inferred 
from the fact that, in the history of Genesis, Esau needed no other 
weapon for the successful pursuit of the wild antelope. 1 In Assyria 
bowmen were sometimes mounted on horses, and the Scythians were 
noted for this kind of warfare. Among the Hebrews the Benja- 
mites were especially skilled in the use of the bow. 2 Bows w T ere made 
both of wood and of copper or brouze. 3 As it respects their form, 
the monuments show that they were sometimes long and slightly 
bent ; sometimes short and curved to a half circle. The expression 
found -in the Hebrew, "tread the bow," where the English is "bend 
the bow," has led to the supposition that bows of great size were in 
use among the Israelites as well as those of ordinary lighter form. 

The strings were probably made from the intestines of animals, 
especially of the ox and the camel. The arrow was of polished 
wood and also, particularly in Egypt, of reeds, and was armed at 
the tip with metal or stone. 4 The Assyrians understood the process 
of feathering arrows to give them greater precision. Sometimes, 
also, they were poisoned or supplied with inflammable material, in 
order to work the greater mischief on the foe. 5 The quiver was car- 
ried, according to convenience, sometimes on the side, sometimes on 
the back. Their monuments show Assyrian soldiers carrying it sus- 
pended from the shoulders. It has been inferred from Habakkuk 
3:9," Thy bow was made quite bare," that, when not in use, the 
bow was kept in a case of some sort. As a matter of fact, the Egyp- 

i Gen. 27:3. 2 1 Chron. 8: 40; 2 Chron. 14 : 8. s Job 20 : 24 ; Ps. 18 : 34. < Isa. 49:2; 
Jer. 51 : 11 (margin). 5 Job 6 : 4 ; Ps. 7 : 13 ; Eph. G : 16. 




1, 2, Assyrian Mail. {Nineveh Mar- 
bles.) 3, Part of Chain Mail. (From 
Kouyunjik.) 4, Greek Cuirass. (From 
Temple Collections.) 5, Persian Mail. 




1, 2, Assyrian Quivers and Case for 
Arrows and Bow. 3, 4, Egyptian Cases 
for Bows. 5, Egyptian Bow. 




Assyrian Archers with Spear hehind a large 
Shield. (From Nineveh Marbles.) 




Roman Standards. (After Fairbairn.) 



248 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

tians are represented as using such a covering for the middle part, 
where it would naturally be grasped in carrying. 

20. The Sling. — The use of the sling is first spoken of in the 
Bible in Judges 20 : 16. Here again the Benjamites are singled 
out for honorable mention as being able to " sling stones at an hair- 
breadth and not miss." How formidable this weapon might be in a 
practiced hand the history of David's combat with Goliath well 
shows. 1 The Israelitish army was provided with companies of sling- 
ers as early as the time of Elisha. 2 According to the monuments 
the sling was both an Egyptian and an Assyrian weapon, and it was 
used on both sides in the wars of the Komans against the common- 
wealth newly established by the Maccabees. 3 It consisted of a simple 
strip of leather or other strong material, wide in the middle and nar- 
row at both ends. The method of swinging it appears to have been 
much the same as in modern times. Not only were smooth stones 
used for hurling, but balls made of burnt clay, of lead and various 
other hard substances. 

21. The Sword. — The swords used by the ancients were, in form, 
both straight and curved ; and, in size, long, like those used in 
modern armies, and short, like a modern dirk or dagger. That the 
Hebrews had the straight sword might perhaps be inferred from pas- 
sages where men are said to have fallen upon their swords; 4 that 
they had the curved form, or scimeter, from the many that speak of 
smiting with the sword. We read also of a two-edged sword. This 
may have been simply the ordinary long sword sharpened on both 
edges. Ehud's double-edged sword, described as a cubit in length, 
seems to have been made shorter than usual. The material from 
which swords were made w r as generally iron ; although Egyptian 
swords of bronze are exhibited in the museums. 5 As a rule, the hilt 
seems to have been elaborately ornamented ; in Assyria, often with 
the head of some wild beast. The sword was carried in a sheath, 
most probably of leather, and worn on the left side. 6 The Persians 
wore the sword on the right side, while the Greeks and Romans car- 
ried it sometimes on one side and sometimes on the other. That the 
Hebrews followed the custom of the Egyptians and Assyrians in this 
respect may be inferred from the circumstance that it is stated that 
the reason why Ehud carried his upon the right side was that he was 
left-handed. 7 

i 1 Sam. 17 : 40. 22 Kings 3 : 25. 3 Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 3, 7 : 18 ; 4, 1 : 8. 4 1 Sam. 
31 : 5. 6 1 Sam. 13 : 10 ; Mic. 4:3. e 2 Sam. 20 : 8 ; Jer. 47 : 6 ; Ezek. 21 : 3. '> Judg. 3 : 15, 
16, 21. 



THE ARMY, 249 

22. Spear and Javelin. — The second principal offensive weapon 
was the spear. It was carried alike by chiefs and common soldiers. 
All the men of war of the tribe of Naphtali were at one time armed 
with it. 1 The shaft was of wood and armed at one end with a sharp 
iron blade. The opposite end was usually pointed, making it also 
a formidable weapon in a strong hand, while it was thus fitted to be 
stuck in the ground when not in use. 2 There are two kinds of spear 
mentioned in the Bible and distinguished by different names in the 
Hebrew. 3 The practical difference seems to have consisted in the 
weight and length of shaft ; the one being used for thrusting only, 
the other for hurling also. The translation "javelin," found in the 
Authorized Version, has been changed in some passages to "spear" 
by the revisers. 4 The javelin belonged to the same general class of 
weapons as the spear, but it was considerably lighter. 5 The spear 
spoken of in John 19 : 34 was the usual one carried by the Roman 
soldiers. In the time of the early emperors it was about six feet in 
length, the length being divided about equally between the shaft and 
the iron blade. 

23. The Battle-axe, etc. — The battle-axe was another weapon 
much used in antiquity. The Egyptian monuments have many rep- 
resentations of it in different forms ; and it is known that the 
Assyrian armies not only made use of it in connection with their 
chariots, but independently. The prophet Jeremiah speaks of the 
Chaldseans as marching against Egypt with " axes as hewers of 
wood." 6 Different styles of hammers also were adopted as imple- 
ments of war. 7 The "staves" spoken of in Matthew 26:47 as 
borne by those who arrested Jesus were probably nothing more than 
clubs which had been hastily caught up in the absence of other 
weapons. The same Greek w r ord is used as in 2 Maccabees, where 
it is said, " But they seeing also the assault of Lysimachus, some 
of them caught stones, others clubs, . . . and cast them all together 
on the party of Lysimachus." 8 

24. The Chariot. — Among ancient implements of war a special 
place is to be assigned to the chariot. The military strength of a 
people was often best indicated by the number of chariots it could put 
in the field. In the exodus period Pharaoh pursued after Israel 
with a force including six hundred of them. 9 It is an evidence of 
the great strength of some of the Canaanite nations with which 

i 1 Sam. 18 : 10 ; 21 : 8 ; 1 Chron. 12 : 24. * \ Sam. 13:19; 26 : 7 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 23. 3 j a ^ 

5:8; 1 Sam. 13:19. * 1 Sam. 18: 11 ; 19 : 10. 5 i Sam. 17 : 45. 6 j er . 46 : 22 ; cf. Ps. 74 : 5. 
~ Prov. 25:18; Jer. 51:20; cf. Nah. 2:1. » 2 Mace. 4:41. 9 Ex. 14:7. 




Aral) with Sword. 



General Form of Ancient Battering-ram. 



THE ARMY. 251 

Israel had to cope that Jabin, one of their kings, had nine hundred 
"chariots of iron" at his disposal. 1 In Solomon's time, as we have 
already noted, chariots and horses were imported into Palestine from 
Egypt at the price of six hundred and one hundred and fifty shekels, 
respectively. 2 Down to the time of the Seleucidse they were in use 
among all the peoples with whom Israel had to do. In the New 
Testament, on the other hand, the only mention made of chariots is 
where they are used for peaceful purposes or in the symbolism of 
the Apocalypse. 3 

In Egypt chariots of war began to be used, it is thought, as early 
as B.C. 1530. They were two-wheeled and drawn by at least two 
horses. Whatever the number of horses, they were harnessed abreast. 
The form of the ancient war-chariot is well known from frequent 
representations on the monuments. They were low, and were en- 
tered from behind. The body was placed directly on the axletree, 
and often highly ornamented with leather and bright metals. On 
the sides were attached cases for weapons. From one to three per- 
sons occupied a chariot. The usual number was two, one acting as 
charioteer and the other as warrior. Jehu carried three in his 
chariot, the third being named in the English version " captain." 
In the Hebrew, however, he is the " third " (man). 4 The horses 
were richly caparisoned and provided with nets and other devices 
to protect them from flies and the heat. On the Assyrian monu- 
ments the trappings -of the horses are represented as very ornate. 
They were also at times furnished with an armor of leather, which 
covered the whole body. 5 The form of the chariot was much the 
same throughout the East at all periods. The chariot of iron spoken 
of as in use among the Canaanites was probably only the ordinary 
chariot armed with scythes or sickles to make them more formidable. 

25. Siege and Defence of Cities. — Since all cities in ancient 
times had walls, the art of war consisted largely in their siege and 
defence. The references in the Bible to this kind of warfare are 
very frequent. The w'alls of cities were often of great size and 
strength. Directly behind one wall w T as sometimes built a second 
and a third. They were of such thickness that large bodies of men 
could be massed upon them. 6 In addition to heavy two-leaved and 
iron-bound gates, the walls were provided with a parapet, and at 
regular intervals towers, from which the defence was conducted. A 
moat or ditch surrounded them, which, when filled with water, made 

* Jud£. 4:3. 2i Kings 10 : 29. 3 Acts 8 : 28 ; Rev. 9:9. * 2 Kings 9 : 25. & Cf. Esth. 
6:8; Ezek. 27 : 20. 6 Neh. 12 : 31 ; 1 Mace. 13 : 45. 



252 CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 

approach difficult. Advantage was often taken likewise of elevated 
spots of ground or high precipices, as in the case of Jerusalem itself, 
to render a city more impregnable to a hostile force. Besides such 
direct defences for cities, fortresses were frequently built in outlying 
districts, to serve the same general purpose for them and the other- 
wise unprotected villages and hamlets of the neighborhood. The 
land of Judah was especially provided for in this way. 1 

26. If a walled city refused to surrender when challenged to do 
so, it was either directly assaulted or siege laid to it. In the former 
case stratagem was often resorted to in order to induce the men of 
war to venture outside the walls. The device of Joshua before Ai will 
be recalled. 2 If this could not be effected, the w r alls were mounted 
by ladders or other means, and their defenders if possible over- 
powered. In such an assault heavy-armed soldiers were placed in 
advance, while bowmen and sliugers sought to protect them from 
the missiles of the enemy. If it Avere found impracticable to carry 
a city by storm, and a regular siege was necessary, the first object 
was to cut off all communication with the surrounding country. 
This w 7 as sometimes done by surrounding it with a temporary wall 
or rampart. From this wall, which in places was carried near to 
that of the city and to the same height, offensive operations w T ere 
carried on. Other means employed were undermining, the batter- 
ing-ram and the movable tower. 3 There is evidence on the Assyrian 
monuments that the machine known as the catapult was early used. 
It was a contrivance on a large scale for casting stones and other 
heavy missiles. The variety of machines of this sort brought into 
use in the wars of the Maccabees may be gathered from a single 
passage relating to the operations of Antiochus Epiphanes. In an 
attack on Jerusalem it is said of him that he " set up tow T ers for 
shooting and engines and machines for casting fire and stones, and 
scorpions to cast darts, and slings." 4 

27. On the approach of an enemy the defenders of a city prepared 
for a protracted siege. They strengthened their walls, stopped up 
or concealed the water-courses outside the town, and provided it, as 
far as possible, with the means of subsistence. 5 When attacked, 
they responded from the walls with showers of arrow T s, sticks of wood, 
boiling water or oil, and massive stones. 6 If strong enough they 
sallied forth to drive off the attacking party. Sieges often lasted 
for months and even years. That of Samaria by the Assyrians, for 

i 2 Chroil. 17:2. 2 Josh. 8. s Isa. 23 : 13 ; .Ter. 51 : 58 ; Ezek. 4:2; 21 : 22. * 1 MUK, 

G : 51. • r > 2 Chron. 82 : 3, 4 ; Isa. 22 : l J. « J udg. 9 : 53 ; 2 Sam. 11 : 20, 21, 24. 



THE ARMY. 



253 



example, continued three years ; that of Jerusalem by the Babylo- 
nians, a year and a half; that of Ashdod by Psammeticus of Egypt, 
twenty-nine years ; that of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar, thirteen years. 
Cyrus took Babylon only by turning the course of the Euphrates. 
Alexander, after a siege of seven months, finally captured Tyre, 
which was built on an island, by constructing a road to it from the 
main land. 




1, Egyptian Clubs and Maces. 
2, Assyrian Mace, and Head of 
Staff. 




Wall of Damascus, showing Houses built upon 
and over the Wall. 




The Eastern Wall of the City of Jerusalem, showing Square Tower built into the Wall. 
(After a Photograph.) 



254 



CIVIL ANTIQUITIES. 




PART III. 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



255 




Forms of Ancient Altars. 
1, Hebrew Altar of Burnt Offering. 2, Hebrew Altar 
of Incense. 3, 6, Roman Altars. 4, 5, Greek Altars. 





Supposed form of the Golden (Jenser. 




The Phylactery Worn by Pharisees. 




The Samaritan Pentateuch enclosed in itfi 
Cylinder, at Nablus. 



High Priest. Priest 

Showing the difference In drew. The Priest has 
a trumpet ; the High Priest has on a brea-tplate Utd 
an ephorl. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE SACRED SEASONS. 

1. The following passages of the Pentateuch treat of the annual 
feasts to be observed by Israel : Exodus 12 : 1-28, 43-51 ; 13:3- 
10; 23 : 14-19; 34 : 18-26; Leviticus, chap. 23; Numbers 9 : 5-14; 
chaps. 28, 29 ; Deuteronomy 16 : 1-17. When examined, they will 
be found to have an intimate connection with the history of the 
exodus, and just that outward historical connection with one an- 
other which might have been expected from their actual inner rela- 
tionship and the order of the narrative in other respects. The series 
naturally starts with the passover and feast of unleavened bread, 
whose origin dates back to the beginning of the exodus, and whose 
inner ground and occasion are especially illustrated in the circum- 
stances attending the departure from Egypt. Then follows, in the 
sinaitic legislation, the announcement that there are to be three an- 
nual pilgrimage feasts, known under the Hebrew name of " chag- 
gim." They include besides the two already named, which being 
celebrated at the same time are regarded as one, 1 Pentecost or the 
feast of harvest, and Tabernacles or the feast of ingathering. These 
three feasts are distinguished from the others, the so-called "moadim," 
by the fact that they could only be observed at the central place of 
worship, where every male Israelite was obligated to appear to cel- 
ebrate them. 

In the third book of the Pentateuch, which is largely taken up 
with the details of that which is summarily stated in the legislation 
of Exodus, there is a list of all the festivals of the Hebrew year, 
with an account of the special ceremonies accompanying them ; 
while in Numbers we are informed what sacrificial offerings were 
appointed for each. In Numbers, too, on the occasion of the first 
repetition of the observance of a feast, we meet with one of the most 
marked characteristics of the Mosaic laws, that is, their journalistic 
form. All the regulations relating to a subject were scarcely ever 
made at one time. The circumstances of the people were largely 
allowed to shape the action of the lawgiver in this respect. Hence 
a considerable number of the laws were given piecemeal, here a part 

i With Deut. 1G : 1 cf. v. 16. 

17 257 



258 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

and there its counterpart ; here the body of the law and there other 
laws having a bearing on its practical operation. In Numbers 9 : 
5-14, for example, where the historical record of the first observance 
of the passover is found, a regulation appears denning the relation 
of persons to it who, at the time, are providentially absent or are 
ceremonially unclean. 

Finally, in Deuteronomy, which looks forward to the changed con- 
ditions of the people as settled in Palestine, no new point is made, 
but the old one is emphasized that there are three of the feasts re- 
quiring the presence of all male Israelites at the central sanctuary. 
That was the one circumstance most likely to be overlooked. Hith- 
erto they had lived within sight of the tabernacle. Hereafter they 
might be separated from it by the length or breadth of the land. If 
so, it must not be urged as an excuse for not observing the old law 
of the passover, of pentecost and of tabernacles. Thus the harmony 
of these laws, as connected with the history of the exodus period and 
finding one and all their immediate occasion in it, is complete. 

2. Another thing which modified the number, order and to some 
extent the character of these occasions was the agricultural year. 
The cycle began with the barley-harvest, with which the harvest 
season in Palestine opened ; it ended with the fruit-harvest, with 
which the season of annual ingathering came to a close. In like 
manner pentecost was placed at the beginning of wheat-harvest, 
seven weeks after the passover. The reason why the sacred seasons 
of the Hebrews were thus closely connected with their agricultural 
year is not hard to find. Such an arrangement was adapted and 
designed to deepen on the part of the people their sense of depend- 
ence on God, as well as to stimulate their gratitude to him for the 
bounties of the earth and skies. 

3. But with the institution of the Sabbath the Hebrew sacred fes- 
tivals were even more closely united than with the agricultural year, 
or as related events in the history of Israel. In the passage where 
for the first time they are enumerated in consecutive order they are 
thus introduced : " The set feasts of the Lord, which ye shall pro- 
claim to be holy convocations, even these are my set feasts. Six 
days shall work be done : but on the seventh day is a sabbath of 
solemn rest, an holy convocation ; ye shall do no manner of work : 
it is a sabbath unto the Lord in all your dwellings." 1 This shows 
that the Sabbath was the norm by which the entire series of festivals 
was to be governed and characterized. The underlying motive for 

i Lev. 28 : 2, 3. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 259 

its institution, the recognition of the divine claim to the whole life 
of the individual, was to be their motive also. Any theory of the 
Hebrew feasts which fails to note their essential connection and their 
connection throughout with the institution of the Sabbath will be 
vitally defective. 

4. The Sabbath. — The Sabbath, like the family, is one of the 
primitive institutions of the race. In its very ground it is of uni- 
versal application. " The sabbath was made for man." 1 "And God 
blessed the seventh day, and hallowed it : because that in it he rested 
from all his work which God had created and made." 2 The later 
ceremonial observance of the Sabbath was a Hebrew institution ; the 
Sabbath in essence never was. It arose long before the rise of the 
Hebrew nation ; it did not pass away ; its vital obligations and duties 
did not cease when that nation's principal mission came to an end 
with Jesus Christ. 

The recognition of definite periods of seven days previous to his 
time is positive evidence that the Sabbath existed, at least in idea, 
before Moses. 3 The term " week," also indicated by a specific He- 
brew word, is a strongly confirmatory fact in the same direction. 4 
That, however, the Sabbath was particularly observed by Israel be- 
fore the exodus the limited records of the Bible furnish no convin- 
cing evidence. We know that the patriarchs worshipped by means 
of sacrifices, and that they knew of the weekly period and reckoned 
by it. We are not expressly told that they kept the seventh day 
religiously. The monuments of Assyria, however, so far supply our 
lack of information on this point as to show that long before the 
time of Moses, even before Abraham left Ur of the Chaldees, a 
seventh day was set apart from ordinary occupations by an eastern 
people. Among Assyrian scholars opinions differ concerning the 
kind of observance by which the seventh day was distinguished as 
well as the reasons for it. The fact that it was more or less widely 
signalized by abstinence from work is, we believe, undisputed. 

As it respects Israel, the same fact might be inferred from the 
manner in which the subject is introduced when our attention is 
first called to it. 5 The new reason assigned in the decalogue why 
the people should keep the Sabbath holy — because Jehovah had 
brought them out of the land of Egypt — was simply putting a na- 
tional or provisional stamp upon the institution. It was of the 
same nature as the additional sacrifices ordered for the day. It 

1 Mark 2 : 27. n - Gen. 2:3. a Gen. 7 : 4, 10 ; 8 : 10, 12. * Gen. 29 : 27, 28. 5 Ex. 16 : 5, 
22-UO; 20:11. 



200 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

abrogated nothing which had been previously fixed, but simply built 
upon it. 

Ethically speaking, the thread of connection which united the 
other festival days with the Sabbath was that both were designed to 
recognize the supreme claim of God. But the obligation faithfully 
to observe those other than the Sabbath was, no doubt, meant to be 
especially enhanced by the consideration that to such an extent they 
were based on a primitive divine institution of so fundamental a 
character as this. The cycle of the week, having its climax in the 
seventh day, was made the basis of the system. It was used as the 
unit of measure, to give a sacred character to every other division 
of time. As the seventh day was sacred, so was the seventh month. 
During that month occurred no less than four of the seven national 
feasts. The seventh year marked a similar bound. And so again 
the fiftieth year, which followed seven cycles each of seven years, 
was a still more sacred sabbath, a year of jubilee. 

Not only were the feasts as a whole arranged with reference to the 
cycle of the week, or the recurrence of the Sabbath, but the same 
was true of them individually. The feast of unleavened bread and 
that of tabernacles, for example, each lasted seven days. Each 
began on the fifteenth of the month, that is, at the expiration of 
two cycles of weeks and when the moon was full. Pentecost, too, 
was celebrated on the fifteenth of the month, and began fifty days 
after the presentation of the first fruits, that is, the day following 
7x7 weeks. And the whole series of yearly festivals was brought 
to a close by a special one at the end of the feast of tabernacles. It 
was like a final solemn sabbath of the year after its week of festival 
days had passed. 

" The sacred seasons form thus a complete and symmetrical scheme, 
giving proper and balanced expression to the leading ideas of Israel's 
religion, and especially adjusted to their relation to God as their 
Creator, Benefactor and Sanctifier. It is a natural, if not a neces- 
sary, conclusion that this is no accidental conglomerate. It is not 
the long accretion of ages, a body of laws aggregated in the course 
of time under varying and contingent circumstances. It is just the 
consistent unfolding of one definite scheme of thought, and as such 
bears the stamp of one reflecting and constructive mind, by which 
it has been carefully elaborated and adjusted into correspondence 
with certain dominant ideas." 1 

5. The Passover. — As already noted, the opening festival of the 

i Green, The Hebrew Feasts (New York, 1886), p. 50. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 



261 



Jewish ecclesiastical year was the passover. It was appointed for 
the fourteenth of Nisan, otherwise known by the old Hebrew name 
of Abib, corresponding nearly to April in our calendar. Histor- 
ically, it was intimately connected with the exodus from Egypt. 
When the angel of death went forth to destroy the 
first-born of the Egyptiaus, he passed over the Israel- 
ites, on the lintel of whose doors the blood of a lamb 
had been sprinkled ; hence its name passover, which 
auswers in sense to the Hebrew word used on that oc- 
casion. " And the blood shall be to you for a token 
upon the houses where ye are : and when I see the 
blood, I will pass over you, and there shall no plague 
be upon you to destroy you, when I smite the land 
of Egypt?' 1 

The observance was of the nature of a feast. On 
the tenth day of the month a lamb was to be selected 
by each family in Israel. If the family was too small 
to require a whole lamb, two or more contiguous 
families were to unite in the celebration. "Accord- 
ing to every man's eating" they were to make their 
"count for the lamb.' 52 An unblemished male of a 
year old was required, but it might be taken from the 
sheep or the goats indifferently. It was to be killed 
on the evening of the fourteenth, literally, " between 
the evenings," and consumed the same night. The 
flesh was to be roasted, not eaten raw, or boiled, and Origanum mam, or 
not a bone of the animal was to be broken. Along 
with it, unleavened bread and bitter herbs might 
nothing more. Whatever portions were not needed for food were to 
be destroyed the same night by burning. "And thus," the instruc- 
tions ran, " shall ye eat it ; with your loins girded, your shoes on 
your feet, and your staff in your hand : and ye shall eat it in haste : 
it is the Lord's passover." 3 This observance w r as to be for Israel a 
memorial, to be kept as a feast to the Lord throughout their gener- 
ations. Foreigners were not allowed to participate unless they had 
been circumcised ; nor could any part of the animal be carried out- 
side the house where the celebration occurred. 

6. In the nature of the case, there were some things distinguish- 
ing the first observance of the passover from all others that succeeded 
it. The original injunction that it should be eaten by households 

i Ex. 12 : 13. 2 Ex. 12 : 4. 3 Ex. 12 : 11. 



supposed Hyssop. 

be used, but 



262 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

at home, with the loins girded, was essentially modified even in the 
sinaitic and deuteronomic laws. They look forward to a settlement 
in the land of Canaan, and it is prescribed that all males at least 
shall go up to the central place of national worship to eat the pass- 
over. Moreover, they were to take with them some additional offer- 
ing, "according to the blessing of the Lord." 1 Again, in the first 
celebration alone the blood of the slain animal was sprinkled by 
means of a "branch of hyssop" on the lintel, or upper casing, of 
the door of each house and its two posts, where the ceremony took 
place. According to later custom the blood was sprinkled on the 
altar, where also the fat was consumed. In the first celebration a 
journey was entered upon on the following day. In subsequent 
times it was regarded as holy, and kept with the sacredness of a 
sabbath. Still further, the injunction that the company should be 
made up of one's own household and his nearest neighbors was so far 
disregarded in the later practice that friends were invited indiscrim- 
inately. " Between the two evenings," the time when the animal 
was to be slain, is understood by the Samaritans, the Karaite Jews 
and some modern commentators to mean the time between sunset 
and dark. But Jewish authorities generally, including Josephus, 2 
refer it to the whole of the afternoon before sunset. This was doubt- 
less the understanding in our Lord's time, as it was that of the Tal- 
mudists. In fact, considerable time was required for the slaughter 
of so many animals and other needful preparations. 

7. The only historical references to the keeping of the passover 
that we have in the Hexateuch are in Numbers 9 : 1-5, which was 
the second year of the exodus, and in the book of Joshua. 3 This is 
not strange, especially in view of the circumstance that the sinaitic 
legislation itself, as we have seen, looks forward to its celebration 
only in the land of Canaan. Its observance is four times mentioned 
in the later historical books. 4 It is significant that in the first of 
these instances advantage was taken of permission given in the law 
to keep the festival a month after the usual time. Subsequent to 
the Babylonian exile we find the Levites assuming the right of slay- 
ing the animal, which in the original law was assigned to the whole 
congregation. Even in the prophecy of Ezekiel the important 
typical bearing of the passover is more than foreshadowed ; while the 
apostle Paul especially emphasizes it in the words, " For our pass- 
over also hath been sacrificed, even Christ : wherefore let us keep the 

1 Ex. 34 : 18-20 ; Deut. 16 : 2, 16, 17 ; cf. 1 Sum. 1:3-7; Luke 2 : 41, 42. n - Josephus, Wars oj 
the Jews, 6, 9 : 3. 3 Josh. 5 : 10. * 2 Kings 23 : 21 ; 2 Chrou. 30 : 15 ; 35 : 6 ; Ezra 6 : 19. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 263 

feast, not with old leaven, neither with the leaven of malice and 
wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth." 1 

8. Later Usage. — The importance of this feast in the history 
of our Lord's time and life, especially its bearing on the crucifixion, 
will justify particular notice of New Testament references to it. 
When our Lord was upon the earth, the number of people who went 
up yearly to Jerusalem to keep the passover might have been 
reckoned by hundreds of thousands. The hospitality not only of 
the city but of the surrounding country was severely taxed. Enter- 
tainment was essentially gratuitous, although it is stated that guests 
left to their hosts the skins of the passover lambs, together with the 
vessels used in the festivities. As every male representing a family 
was expected during his stay in the city, in addition to the passover, 
to offer a burnt offering to the Lord, it can be readily conceived that 
the concourse of people and their activity in the vicinity of the 
temple were extraordinary. 

The special preparation for the passover began with the evening 
of the thirteenth of Nisan, when all leaven was scrupulously re- 
moved. Unleavened cakes were also then baked, and by Jewish 
regulations might be made of the flour of wmeat, barley, spelt, oats 
or rye, but mixed with water only. The whole of the fourteenth of 
Nisan was, to a large extent, regarded as a holiday. The regular 
evening sacrifice was offered an hour earlier than usual to allow time 
for killing the passover lambs. If this date fell on Friday, that is, 
the day before the Sabbath, it was offered two hours before the ordi- 
nary time, or at about half past one in the afternoon. Following 
this was the ceremony of slaying the lambs in the court of the tem- 
ple. It is claimed to have proceeded in this way: The people 
entered by divisions, not less than thirty at a time. Two rows of 
priests, each priest holding a bowl, stood between the altar of burnt- 
offering and the place of slaughter. One of them handed up the 
blood, which was sprinkled at the altar's base; the other passed back 
the empty bowls. The animal was slain by the man who brought 
it. The remaining work, skinning and cleansing the animal, the 
separation of the fat and preparing it for the altar, was done by 
attendants. During the entire ceremony what w r as called the Hallel 2 
was chanted by a choir of Levites, others present joining in the 
responses. 

The paschal lamb was roasted whole on a spit, extreme care being 
taken that it did not come in contact with the oven. The meal at 

i Ezek. 9 : 4-6 ; 1 Cor. 5 : 7, 8 ; cf. Rev. 7 : 2, 3 ; 9 : 4. 2 p ss . 113-118. 



264 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

which it was eaten was regarded as, in every sense, a festive one. 
The guests were brightly clothed and reclined at the table as at or- 
dinary meals. Although not enjoined in the original institution of 
the passover, four times during the progress of the repast they par- 
took of wine. There is no evidence that the wine used was unfer- 
mented. Mixing it with water was invariably practiced, and this 
would imply the contrary. Everything about the meal was suggest- 
ive of joyousness. The lamb was a symbol of deliverance from 
death. The unleavened bread betokened a similar hasty deliverance 
from the hard bondage of Egypt. The bitter herbs reminded of a 
bitterness already past. By Jewish law they might be lettuce, en- 
dive, succory, horehound or what is called charchavina. Succory 
and horehound are given only as probable renderings of the rabbin- 
ical Hebrew words employed. 

The supper began with a prayer of thanksgiving and drinking the 
first cup, after which the hands were washed. The bitter herbs, 
moistened in salted water, were thereupon eaten, and, the dishes 
being removed, the second cup was filled. Before drinking it, pas- 
sages of Scripture, embracing the early history of Israel, were recited 
or read, in obedience to the command found in the original law of 
the passover. Following this the first part of the Hallel was sung, 
the second cup drunk and the hands again washed ; the last cer- 
emony being accompanied, as in the former instance, by a brief 
prayer. The lamb was then carved and eaten, the third cup drunk, 
followed soon after by the fourth, and the singing of the second part 
of the Hallel, Pss. 115-118. 

9. The Paschal Controversy. — The purposes of the present 
work would be little subserved by entering, to any great extent, into 
the paschal controversy which, since the second century, has divided 
the wise and good of the Christian Church. It is well known that 
there is lack of agreement on the question whether the evening of 
Thursday, on which, as all concede, our Lord instituted his supper 
and was betrayed, was that of the fourteenth of Nisan, the regular 
time for slaying the paschal lamb, or that of the thirteenth. If it 
was the latter, as many hold, then our Lord anticipated in the meal 
he instituted the regular passover feast by one day, and was crucified 
at or near the time when the passover offerings were slain in the 
court of the temple. At first thought this would appear more fitting, 
in view of the purpose for which he gave himself up to a sacrificial 
death. But when all the circumstances, including the several state- 
ments of the evangelists, are considered, we have the greatest diffi- 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 265 

culty in believing that such was the case. At the start, the apparent 
relevancy of our Lord's being crucified at the very time when the 
paschal lamb was offered is offset by the equally apparent infelicity 
of his celebrating with the apostles what is called " the passover" a 
day before the usual time. The passover proper, it is admitted, it 
could not have been. Had such an observance, out of its proper 
time, been possible in other respects, slaying a lamb in the temple 
for such a purpose would have been out of the question. 

The discussion would doubtless never have arisen had we simply 
before us the accounts of the so-called synoptic, that is, the first three, 
gospels. They agree perfectly in characterizing the meal spoken of 
as the passover. 1 If their language is to be taken in its most natural 
sense, there is no escape from the conclusion that, according to them, 
our Lord kept the passover with the twelve on the fourteenth of 
Nisan, the same night on which it was observed by the Jews gener- 
ally. There are not a few, however, who maintain that the Gospel 
of John and many incidental circumstances are directly opposed to 
such a result. These show, they think, that it was only a quasi- 
passover, a special meal in connection with the institution of the 
Lord's Supper, that is referred to by the synoptists, and that it took 
place on the evening of the thirteenth of Nisan. 

John 13 : 1, for example, is cited, where this supper is spoken of 
as having occurred " before the feast of the passover ;" also John 
13 : 28, 29, where Judas Iscariot is understood by some of the dis- 
ciples to have been instructed to make preparations " for the feast." 
But in both these instances the feast of the passover is joined in con- 
ception with that of unleavened bread, which immediately followed 
it. This was no unusual thing either before or at this time. 2 The 
same is true of John 18 : 28, Avhere it said of the Jews that they did 
not enter into the palace or prsetorium of Pilate, " that they might 
not be defiled, but might eat the passover." That the passover 
proper cannot be here meant is evident from the fact that it was not 
eaten until after sunset, while the defilement incurred would only 
have lasted until the evening. On the other hand, if they had en- 
tered the Roman prsetorium on the night of the fourteenth, it would 
really have prevented their partaking of the chagigah or peace offer- 
ings, which at that period were offered on the first day of the feast 
of unleavened bread. 

i Matt. 26 : 2, 17 ; Mark 14 : 12-16 ; cf. Matt. 26 : 18, 19 ; Luke 22 : 7, 8. °- Deut. 16 : 2 ; 2 

Chron. 30: 21-24 ; 35 : 8 ; Josephus, Anliq. 14, 2 : 2 ; Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 5, 3 : 1 ; Mark 
14:1; Luke 22:1. 



266 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

Again, the apostle John, it is said, speaks of the Friday on which 
our Lord was crucified, once, as the " preparation of the passover," 
and at another time as the "preparation," and that this is inconsist- 
ent with the theory that he was crucified on the fifteenth of Nisan. 1 
But here, as before, the " passover " means the whole series of feasts ex- 
tending through the seven festival days which were connected with it, 
and the "preparation" referred to is the preparation for the sixteenth, 
which the apostle himself characterizes as a " high day." It was the 
day on which the first sheaf of barley was presented in the temple. 

It has been still further urged, as favoring the view that Jesus 
was crucified on the fourteenth of Nisan, that what is said to have 
been done on that day, the buying of the fine linen, the preparation 
of the spices and the ointment, and the like, are incompatible with 
the theory that it was on the fifteenth, which was a day of festive 
rest. 2 To this it may be replied that while the fifteenth of Nisan, 
the day immediately following the eating of the passover, was a day 
of festive rest, it had not the same sanctity as the Sabbath. Besides, 
according to the Talmud, it was entirely lawful, even on the Sab- 
bath, to perform the usual offices for the dead. 

10. On the other hand, were it to be admitted that the crucifixion 
took place " between the evenings " of the fourteenth of Nisan, which 
was the time for slaying the passover lamb, we should be shut up to 
several unsatisfactory or impossible conclusions. In the first place, 
at this solemn moment, when it might be supposed that the attention 
of the entire people would be directed to what was going on in the 
court of the temple, we should find the multitudes following the 
Roman soldiers to witness the crucifixion. Not only so, but each of 
the four evangelists records that the chief priests and scribes were 
also there. How can this be harmonized with any right conception 
of the duties of these officials on the afternoon of the fourteenth of 
Nisan ? 3 It is the apostle John, moreover, who reports that Joseph 
of Arimathsea and Nicodemus, both members of the Sanhedrin, 
busied themselves with the matter of obtaining the body of Jesus 
and making provision for its burial at this same time. 4 For these 
and other reasons we are forced to the conclusion that the evangel- 
ists meant to represent that our Saviour ate the real passover with 
the twelve on the night of his betrayal, and that it was at the close 
of his last celebration of this historic institution, and as a Christian 
substitute for it, that he established his own supper. 

i John 19 : 14, 31. 2 Mark 15 : 46 ; Luke 23 : 56. * Matt. 27 : 39, 41 ; Mark 15 : 29, 31 ; 

Luke 28 : 35 ; John 19 : 21. * John 19 : 3S, 39. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 267 

11. The Feast of Unleavened Bread. — As already noted, 
the feast of unleavened bread followed directly on that of the pass- 
over. In fact the paschal lamb was eaten at the beginning of the 
first day of the former feast, the fifteenth of Nisan ; the Hebrew day 
being reckoned from evening to evening. It was this circumstance 
that gave rise to the custom of calling both feasts by the same name. 
The law for the observance of the feast of unleavened bread is found 
in several passages of the Pentateuch. 1 Certain critics of our day, 
on the basis of the theory that the Pentateuch is made up of various 
documents, which they profess to be able to discriminate and to sep- 
arate from one another, discover a want of harmony between the law 
of the feast in the other books and what is said in Deuteronomy. 
They allege that while in Exodus two days of holy convocation are 
spoken of, the first and the seventh, in the latter book we hear of but 
one. It is true that the account as found in Deuteronomy is pecul- 
iar in many respects, especially in merging together what in Exodus 
and Leviticus is kept apart. But it is to be remembered that the 
book of Deuteronomy appears to be simply a repetition, for purposes 
of instruction, of matters previously given. That its author knew 
of the two peculiarly holy days of the feast, though speaking of but 
one, is evident from the fact that in the context he refers to a cer- 
emony of great importance, the waving of the sheaf of barley, that 
occurred only on that day. 

As might be naturally inferred, the feast of unleavened bread de- 
rived its name from the circumstance that only bread of this sort 
was allowed to be eaten during it, that is, from the fifteenth to the 
twenty-first of the month Nisan. The additional characterization, 
"bread of affliction," found in some passages, 2 is not given to it be- 
cause in itself this bread was disagreeable to the taste. It was used 
simply as a symbol of what Israel had suffered in the bondage of 
Egypt and of the haste with which deliverance had been effected. 
The whole feast, like that which preceded it, was of a joyous char- 
acter. Though calling attention to thralldom, it signalized manu- 
mission. The ritual to be observed on each day of the feast is 
definitely prescribed in the book of Numbers. 3 A burnt offering 
was required, consisting of two young bullocks, a ram, and seven 
he-lambs of the first year, all without blemish, together with their 
meal offering, fine flour mingled with oil. Besides these sacrifices, 
which were made for the congregation as a whole, individuals were 

1 Ex. 12 : 15-20 ; 13 : 3-10 ; Lev. 23 : G ; Num. 28 : 17 ; Deut. 16:8. 2 Deut. 16 : 3. 3 Num. 
28 : 19-24. 



268 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

expected to bring others on the first day or the following days, in 
obedience to the injunction that they were not to appear before the 
Lord " empty." x These were mostly peace offerings, and were ac- 
companied with festive meals. 2 

The first day of the feast, as we have already noted, was to be 
kept as especially sacred, all servile work being given up, and the 
title " sabbath " being given to it. The fact that the fifteenth of 
Nisan is called a sabbath is quite analogous to biblical usage with 
respect to the other feasts. 3 Overlooking this circumstance, some 
have misunderstood the language of Leviticus 23 : 11, where instruc- 
tions are given concerning what is to be done on that day, suppos- 
ing the weekly Sabbath to be meant. It is the first day of the feast 
of unleavened bread, as a uniform Jewish tradition agrees (the fif- 
teenth of Nisan, that is so named, on whatever day of the week it 
fell). It was on the day following it that a sheaf of barley was waved 
in the sanctuary to indicate the formal opening of the harvest season. 
Before this ceremony took place all harvesting of grain was un- 
lawful. "And ye shall eat neither bread, nor parched corn, nor 
fresh ears, until this selfsame day, until ye have brought the obla- 
tion of your God : it is a statute forever throughout your genera- 
tions in all your dwellings."* 

The Talmud contains minute instructions on the method of pro- 
cedure, in the later time, in cutting and waving the barley. Orig- 
inally, doubtless, the ceremony was of a much simpler character. 
The place whence it was to be taken was first carefully selected by 
a delegation from the Sanhedrim It must be an ordinary field, and 
one on which only ordinary cultivation had been bestowed. The 
grain was cut on the evening of the fifteenth of Nisan by three per- 
sons commissioned for the purpose, and to an amount that would pro- 
duce about three pecks of grain. It w T as then threshed, parched, 
ground, and mixed with oil and frankincense. Only a small part 
of it was actually used as a wave offering. The rest was given to 
the officiating priest. 

12. The Feast of Weeks. — The second great pilgrimage feast 
of the Jews, counting the passover and the feast of unleavened bread 
as one, was the feast of weeks, or pentecost. Other names applied 
to it are the "feast of harvest" and the "day of first fruits." It 
came exactly fifty days after that of unleavened bread, or after 
7x7 weeks, counting from the presentation of the sheaf of barley. 
Hence we get the names " pentecost," meaning fifty, and " weeks," 

l Ex. 23 : 15. 2 Cf. 2 Chroii. 35 : 13. 3 Lev. l'J : 3, 30 ; Ezek. 20 : 12, 20. * Lev. 23 : 1 i. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 209 

when the intervening sabbatical cycle is especially in view. When 
called the " feast of harvest," the fact was emphasized that the wheat 
harvest, and with it the whole harvest of grain, approximated its 
close. The title " day of first fruits" refers to an offering of bread 
from the new wheat enjoined in the law for this feast. After the 
destruction of the Herodian temple, pentecost was observed by the 
Jews also in commemoration of the giving of the sinaitic covenant, 
whose anniversary it was held to be. There is no direct support for 
such a tradition in the Old Testament. 1 

The special offerings required on the day of pentecost were two 
young bullocks, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year, with 
their appropriate meal offerings, and a kid of the goats for a sin 
offering. These were not only additional to the usual daily sacri- 
fices, but also to those made in connection with the presentation of 
the new flour. 2 The latter was what peculiarly distinguished the 
day as a festival. The presentation was in the form of two wheaten 
loaves or cakes. They were made from two tenths of an ephah of 
fine flour. 3 At a later time the Talmud exactly prescribed their 
size. In length they were to be seven, and in width four, hand- 
breadths, and four fingers high. The accompanying sacrifices were 
seven lambs of the first year, one young bullock and two rams, for 
a burnt offering, along with their appropriate meal offering ; a kid 
of the goats for a sin offering, and two lambs of the first year for a 
sacrifice of peace offerings. It will be seen that the number and 
richness of the offerings at the least of pentecost considerably ex- 
ceeded those of the sixteenth of Nisan, when the sheaf of barley 
was waved. The one indicated only the beginning of the harvest 
season, the other its fullness. Each of the offerings had a special 
significance. The burnt offering was a recognition of the univers- 
ality of the divine claim. The sin offering expressed the longing 
that the sins committed during the season now closed might be wiped 
out. And the peace offerings symbolized a renewal of fellowship with 
the Creator and Benefactor. 

The wave loaves of the feast of pentecost were leavened. Such 
was the case with all bread offered in connection with thank offer- 
ings. The principal reason for this doubtless was that they were 
intended to represent the ordinary food of the people, the daily 
bread, for whose provision they hereby expressed their gratitude. 
Another reason also has been assigned: "Let it be remembered that 
these two loaves, with the two lambs that formed part of the same 

i Cf. Ex. 19. 2 Nam. 28 : 2u-31. * Lev. 23 : 17-20. 



270 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

wave offering, were the only public peace and thank offerings of 
Israel ; that they were accompanied by burnt and sin offerings ; and 
that, unlike ordinary peace offerings, they were considered as ' most 
holy.' Hence they were leavened, because Israel's public thank offer- 
ings, even the most holy, are leavened by imperfectness and sin, and 
they need a sin offering." l 

Of the wave loaves and lambs, they being public offerings, one of 
each was given to the high priest ; the rest fell to the other priests 
officiating at the sanctuary. The fat of both the lambs was con- 
sumed on the altar. The remaining flesh was eaten at a sacrificial 
meal within the precincts of the temple. None of it might be left 
over beyond the following midnight, The presentation of public 
sacrifices on this and succeeding days was followed by the more 
private ones. Many were the thank offerings kept for such occa- 
sions, the presentation of them in the sanctuary being followed by 
festive meals occupying the afternoon and evening. This feast, too. 
and that of tabernacles, would naturally be the most appropriate 
time for individual offerings of the first fruits. The law requiring 
such offerings did not specify the time. 2 Among other things, for 
example, a cake of the first dough might then have been brought 
as a heave offering to the Lord ; 3 or a basket of miscellaneous fir^t 
fruits have been presented at the altar in connection with the in- 
teresting formula recorded in Deuteronomy 26 : 2-11. The three 
thousand souls added on the day of pentecost to the Christian Church 
w T ere also " first fruits," and first fruits of a more glorious harvest 
which from that day to this has not ceased to be gathered. 

13. We need not wonder that the one day prescribed in the law 
for this feast was, in later times, found too short, and that other days 
were set apart to it. In fact, later Judaism made a change in this 
respect in all the leading feasts excepting only the day of atonement, 
devoting, instead of one day, two days to them. This they did, as 
a primary reason, on account of the uncertainty attaching to their 
method of reckoning time, especially the observations of the moon's 
phases. Pentecost, whose exact date was dependent on the first ob- 
servation of the new moon of Nisan, would naturally be kept on the 
sixth of Sivan, which was the sixty-fifth day after that event ; but 
to guard against mistake the seventh day was likewise celebrated. 
The only reference to pentecost found in the historical books of the 
Old Testament is an incidental one in 2 Chronicles 8:13. It is 
three times mentioned in the New Testament ; and as the day when 

i Edershc-im, The Temple, p. 230. 2 Ex. 22 : 29 ; 23 : 19 ; 34 : 26. 3 Xum. 15 : 19. 21. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 271 

the Holy Spirit descended as the gift of the risen Saviour, is sig- 
nally honored. The account in Acts informs us that there were then 
" dwelling at Jerusalem . . . devout men, from every nation under 
heaven. . . . Parthians and Medes and Elamites, and the dwellers 
in Mesopotamia, in Judsea and Cappadocia, in Pontus and Asia, in 
Phrygia and Pamphylia, in Egypt and the parts of Libya about 
Cyrene, and sojourners from Rome, both Jews and proselytes, Cretans 
and Arabians." 1 Josephus speaks of the number attending in his 
day as a "great many ten thousands." 2 It is probable that while 
not so many Jews from Palestine would be present at this feast as at 
the passover or the feast of tabernacles, those of the dispersion were 
even more generally represented. It was the time of year when it 
would have been easiest for them to visit the mother city. 

14. The Feast of Tabernacles. — The feast of tabernacles 
closed the pilgrimage feasts of the Hebrew calendar, and was to them 
also of the nature of a climax. As the feast of "tabernacles" or 
booths, it recalled as perhaps nothing else could do the ancient his- 
tory of the covenant people and God's providential dealing with 
them in the wilderness. As the feast of " ingathering," another of 
its names, it signalized the conclusion of a year which had been 
crowned with the divine goodness. So transcendent was its import- 
ance in the eyes of Old Testament writers that it was called by them 
"the feast" and "the feast of Jehovah." 3 Like the passover and 
the accompanying festival of unleavened bread, it lasted seven days, 
from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of Tishri, the seventh month 
of the Jewish ecclesiastical year. 4 An eighth festival day folloAved, 
but it took on a different character and had a different meaning from 
the preceding feast. The people no longer dwelt in booths ; and 
the offerings, as well as the ritual of temple service, were altered. 
It is only in the more detailed legislation of the middle books of 
the Pentateuch that this eighth day is mentioned. So close was its 
connection with the feast of tabernacles with respect to time, that 
at a later period the latter was sometimes spoken of as a feast of 
eight days. 5 Still, they are carefully distinguished in their original 
institution, and the eighth day is looked upon as the closing day, not 
simply of the feast of tabernacles, but of the whole cycle of yearly 
festivals. 

The feast of tabernacles was not only, like the passover and pen- 

» Acts 2 : 5, 9-11 ; 20 : 16 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 8. 2 Josephus, Antiq. 14, 13 : 4 ; 17, 10 : 2. 3 Lev. 

23 : 39 ; 1 Kings 8 : 2 ; 2 Chron. 5 : 3 ; 7 : 8, 9. * Lev. 23 : 36, 39 ; Num. 29 . 35-38. '■> 2 Mace. 
10 : 6 ; Josephus, Antiq. 3, 10 : 4. 



272 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

tecost, a highly-joyous occasion, but this element seems to have been 
meant, as it related to the people, especially to dominate in it. The law 
of its institution reads, " Howbeit on the fifteenth day of the seventh 
month, when ye have gathered in the fruits of the land, ye shall keep 
the feast of the Lord seven days : on the first day shall be a solemn 
rest, and on the eighth day shall be a solemn rest. And ye shall 
take you on the first day the fruit of goodly trees, branches of palm 
trees, and boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook ; and ye 
shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days. And ye shall 
keep it a feast unto the Lord seven days in the year : it is a statute 
forever in your generations: ye shall keep it in the seventh month. 
Ye shall dwell in booths seven days; all that are homeborn in 
Israel shall dwell in booths : that your generations may know that 
I made the children of Israel dwell in booths, when I brought them 
out of the land of Egypt : I am the Lord your God." 1 

15. A discussion arose at an early day on the question whether 
the branches of trees spoken of, the willow, the palm, etc., were to 
be used in the construction of the booths or to be carried about in 
the hand. The latter view, which is probably the correct one, was 
adopted by the Pharisees, the former by the Sadducees. It is cer- 
tain that when this feast was celebrated in the time of Nehemiah, 
the Jews, in building their temporary abiding-places, did not think 
it necessary to use the trees mentioned in Leviticus; 2 and in our 
Lord's day, the Pharisaic tradition was exclusively followed. Orig- 
inally, perhaps, willow and palm branches served a double purpose: 
they were borne in the hand during the festivities and were also used 
to ornament the otherwise plainly-constructed booths. 

16. As the feast of tabernacles was specially characterized by the 
booth and other mementos of by-gone days, so it was distinguished 
by the number and variety of sacrifices required during its celebra- 
tion. Each day had its burnt offering and sin offering. The former 
had the peculiarity that, from the first day to the last, the number 
of bullocks offered was to be one less each day, while the number of 
lambs and rams of a year old was to remain the same. On the first 
day, for example, there were sacrificed thirteen bullocks, two rams 
and fourteen lambs, together with the appropriate meal offerings. 
On the second day there were sacrificed twelve bullocks, the number 
of the other animals remaining the same. On the third day, eleven 
bullocks were offered up, and so on. This singular arrangement has 
never been satisfactorily explained. It is noticeable, however, that 

i Lev. 23 : 39 43 : c£ vs. 33-36 ; Num. 29 : 12-38. 2 Neh. 8 : 15-18. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 216 

the closiDg number on the seventh day would be seven, the sacred 
number; and it has been pointed out that the whole number of 
burnt sacrifices during the week is exactly divisible by seven, as 
is also the sum of each of the several kinds of sacrifices. Of the 
bullocks there were seventy, of the rams fourteen, and of the lambs 
ninety-eight. These offerings, as was the case in the other leasts, 
were in addition to the daily morning and evening sacrifice, and on 
the sabbath to the burnt offering, with the meal and drink offering, 
designated for that day. On the eighth day of the festival, as on the 
first and tenth days of this month, the sacrifice consisted, in addition 
to the sin offering, of only one bullock, one ram and seven he-lambs. 
All the sacrifices throughout the joyous week w r ere accompanied, at 
least in later times, not only by trumpet-blasts 1 on the part of the 
priests, but by the singing of the so-called Hallel, 2 with musical ac- 
companiment by the Levites and responses from the people. 

17. The first historical reference to the feast of tabernacles is ap- 
parently found in the book of Judges. 3 Processions and diversions 
of various sorts accompanied it at this time. While celebrated at 
the national sanctuary, the unsettled character of the times pre- 
vented the widest participation of the people. It is otherwise after 
the completion of Solomon's temple. 4 So popular did the feast of 
tabernacles and the other pilgrimage feasts then become that, after 
the separation of the ten tribes, Jeroboam expressed the fear, "If 
this people go up to offer sacrifices in the house of the Lord at Jeru- 
salem, then shall the heart of this people turn again unto their lord, 
even unto Rehoboara king of Judah." 5 This king, accordingly, 
made the golden calves, and placed them, one at Dan and the other 
at Bethel, and even had the temerity to change the date of the feast 
of tabernacles from the fifteenth day of the seventh month to the 
fifteenth day of the eighth, a date, according to the sacred historian, 
" which he had devised of his own heart." Subsequent to the Baby- 
lonian exile, as might be expected, the concourse of people attend- 
ing the national festivals and their scrupulosity in observing them 
greatly increased. It is said, for instance, of an observance of the 
feast of tabernacles in the time of Nehemiah that "since the days of 
Jeshua the son of Nun unto that day had not the children of Israel 
done so." 6 It is worthy of note, too, that besides the seven days of 
the festival proper, the eighth day was kept by the returned exiles, 
in apparent consciousness of its true import as the closing day of the 

i Num. 10:10. 2 Pss. 113-11*. 3 Judg. 21 : 19 (" the feast"). 4 1 Kings 8:2, 65; 9 : 25; 
2 Chron. 5 : 3 ; 7 : 8 ; 8 : 13. *> 1 Kiugs 12 : 27-33. 6 Neh. 8 : 17. 

18 



274 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

whole series of yearly festivals. The record is, " they kept the feast 
seven days ; and on the eighth day was a solemn assembly [closing 
festival], according unto the ordinance." 1 The only other reference 
in the historical books to the observance of the eighth day is found 
in 2 Chronicles 7 : 9, where it is said of Solomon that he held a " sol- 
emn assembly" [closing festival] upon it. 

18. The feast of tabernacles underwent some important changes 
at the hands of the later Jews. For example, the most minute reg- 
ulations were made concerning the structure of the booths, and, ex- 
cept in the case of heavy rains, all Israelites were expected to make 
them their only habitation for the space of seven days. The " fruit 
of goodly trees" mentioned in the Pentateuch was definitely inter- 
preted as meaning the citron; and the "boughs of thick trees" were 
myrtle boughs. All worshippers at the feast, even children, were 
required to provide themselves with branches of the poplar, myrtle 
and willow, and to interweave them to form what was known as the 
lulav. The custom can be historically traced to the time of the Mac- 
cabees. 2 This lulav was carried daily, and in the left hand, in the 
processions that marched to the temple. Reaching the temple the 
crowds surrounded the altar of burnt offering, waving the boughs 
and shouting hosannas. On the seventh day they encompassed the 
altar seven times. 

19. A second principal peculiarity of the post-exilian celebration 
of this feast w T as the ceremony of bringing water from the pool of 
Siloam. A festive procession, headed by a priest bearing a golden 
pitcher, started for the purpose at the time of the offering of the daily 
morning sacrifice. The return was so timed that the priest re-en- 
tered the so-called "water-gate" before the drink offering which ac- 
companied the sacrifice was made. He was received in the forecourt 
of the temple with trumpet-blasts. A second priest there took the 
pitcher from his hands, with the words of Isaiah 12:3: " Therefore 
with joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation," mingled 
the water with the wine of the drink offering, and poured the whole 
into a silver receptacle on the southeast corner of the altar. From 
here it was carried, by means of a subterranean channel, into the 
Kedron valley. More than one of the prophets was supposed to 
make allusion to this ceremony. 3 It has been thought that it was in 
particular reference to it that on " the last day, the great day of the 
feast, Jesus stood and cried, saying, If any man thirst, let him come 
unto me, and drink." 4 The origin of the rite is uncertain; but it 

iNeh. 8:18. 2 2 Mace. 10:7. » Ezek. 47 : 1 ; Joel 2 : 23 ; Zech. 14 : 8, 17. « John 7: 87. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 275 

was especially favored by the Pharisees. During the high-priest- 
hood of Alexander Jannseus (b.c. 104-78), who with his court be- 
longed to the Sadducsean party, this ruler, while officiating at the 
altar on an occasion of this kind, instead of pouring the water into 
the receptacle set apart for it, contemptuously threw it on the ground. 
So enraged were the spectators at this act of apparent sacrilege that 
they mercilessly pelted Jannaeus with the citrons which they held in 
their hands, and would have put him to death had it not been for the 
interposition of his guard. 

20. Another change introduced into the feast of tabernacles in 
the later times was an illumination, on the evening of the first day, 
of the court of the women with golden candelabras. At the same 
time also a torchlight procession, with music and dancing, was con- 
ducted by leading Israelites known as "chassidim" and "men of 
deed." Throughout the whole night the festivities were continued. 
Israelites living at too great a distance from Jerusalem to make it 
convenient for them to be present at the feast, especially those in 
foreign lands, were allowed to observe it in their local synagogues. 
Prayer and the reading of the law, in such cases, took the place of 
the more elaborate ritual of the temple. 

21. The New Moon. — Besides the four festivals already noted 
there were two others provided for in the Mosaic laws : that of the 
new moon and the atonement. The latter was more properly a fast, 
and the only one enjoined in the ancient law. The custom of cel- 
ebrating the reappearance of the moon probably originated before 
the time of Moses. It was at least widely prevalent with eastern 
peoples in antiquity. Among the festivals of the Jews it always held 
a prominent place. With the exception of the new moon of the 
seventh month, the law enjoined only the offering of special sacri- 
fices and the blowing of trumpets on this day ; but it seems to have 
been generally kept by the people as a full holiday, with voluntary 
abstinence from servile labor. On the new moon of the seventh 
month, the number of offerings, like the blowing of trumpets, was 
considerably increased. Although the feast is sometimes called " the 
feast of trumpets," the blowing of trumpets was by no means pecul- 
iar to it. The original law on this point reads: "Also in the day 
of your gladness, and in your set feasts, and in the beginnings of 
your months, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt offer- 
ings, and over the sacrifices of your peace offerings ; and they shall 
be to you for a memorial before your God." 1 That is to say, the 

i Num. 10 : 10. 



276 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

trumpets on all these occasions were appointed for rallying the people 
anew to Jehovah's standard and to a public acknowledgment of loy- 
alty to him. 

22. The observance of the first day of the lunar month began to 
take on a new character soon after the Babylonian exile. The tend- 
ency to exaggerate its importance, however, showed itself in a much 
earlier period. On this day, for example, we find King Saul making 
a state banquet, and the family of David offering up a special annual 
sacrifice. 1 Even in the kingdom of the ten tribes the prophets are 
able to utilize the larger assemblies on these occasions for religious 
instruction. 2 But, from the time of the exile, the festival began to 
assume the character of a new year's celebration. It was on the first 
day of the seventh month that the returned exiles resumed the reg- 
ular services of the sanctuary. 3 In the Jewish ecclesiastical year, as 
we have seen, much depended on the correct determination of the 
appearance of the new moon. How it was effected in the times be- 
fore the exile it is not possible to say. After the rise of rabbinism 
definite rules were laid down. On the thirtieth day of each month, if 
it were found necessary, an all-day session of the Sanhedrin was held. 
The fact of the moon's appearance was learned by actual observation 
and not by astronomical reckoning. The latter method was not 
adopted until two centuries after the destruction of the second temple. 

Trustworthy witnesses were encouraged to bring the news at any 
expense, and, if necessity required it, to travel on the Sabbath for 
the purpose. A banquet was specially provided in Jerusalem for 
this class of persons. As soon as, in the judgment of the Sanhedrin, 
the fact was established, the words "It is sanctified" were spoken 
and the feast began. Signal-fires kindled on the Mount of Olives 
and other heights spread the information to the extremities of the 
Holy Land. If cloudy weather made an observation of the new 
moon impossible, the old month was reckoned as one of thirty days, 
and the new one began with the evening of the following day. On 
the other hand, if the new moon was seen on the thirtieth, within 
certain limits it was counted as the first day of a new month, and 
the preceding month reckoned one of twenty-nine days. The New 
Testament contains no reference to the celebration of this feast by 
our Lord in Jerusalem. This is not strange, since it might have 
been just as properly observed in any one of the many synagogues 
of Palestine. 

i 1 Sam. 20 : 5, 6, 24, 29. 2 2 Kings 4 : 23 ; Isa. 1:13; Ezek. 46 : 1 : Hag. 1:1. » Ezra 3:6' 
Neh. 8 : 2. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 277 

23. The Day of Atonement. — The tenth day of the seventh 
month was observed as the day of atonement. At this time aton- 
ing sacrifices were offered for the sins and uncleannesses of the people 
of Israel as a whole, and for the purification of the temple in all its 
parts and appurtenances. At each of the great yearly assemblies — 
indeed on almost every day of the year — special offerings were made 
either for the sins of individuals or of the community ; but they did 
not suffice to make the requisite impression even of the necessity of 
the remission of sin, much less to restore the sinful to his lost place 
in the theocracy or visible kingdom of God. Beyond this the blood 
of bulls and goats could never go, so cleansing the offerers that there 
should be " no more conscience of sins." But to go even so far — 
to make a due " remembrance of sins " year by year, and bring the 
people into outward harmony with their institutions — the solemn 
rites of the day of atonement were needful. 

Accordingly it was not without reason that one entire day of each 
year was solemnly set apart for the purpose of humiliation and con- 
fession. It was the more marked that it stood by itself, the sole fast 
enjoined amongst a number of joyous festivals. In all its appoint- 
ments, moreover, it was peculiar and designed to attract attention 
and awaken serious thought. On this day alone the services of the 
sanctuary extended into the holy of holies. On other days of the 
year the high priest might participate in the public services of God's 
house, or might not; on the tenth of Tishri he* alone could officiate, 
other priests acting 7 simply as his assistants. On this day, also, he 
was obliged, in certain ceremonies, to put off his ordinary golden 
vestments and clothe himself from head to foot in garments of white 
linen. We might wonder that a day so important as this in the 
Jewish ecclesiastical year does not stand at its close. Why does it 
precede rather than follow the feast of tabernacles, whose festivities 
begin on the fifteenth of the same month? The day of atonement 
in some sense was a preparatory occasion, for the feast of thanks- 
giving, the closing festival of the year. It did all that the ceremo- 
nial law could do to bring the individual and the nation into har- 
mony with God, and effect that peace of conscience without which 
true joy of heart was impossible. 

At all the sacrifices offered on the day of atonement the high 
priest officiated. In addition to the daily morning and evening 
offerings, there was a burnt offering of a ram, which was presented 
in behalf of the priesthood ; a young bullock, a ram and seven 
lambs of the first year, with their meal offering, in behalf of the 



278 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

people ; a kid of the goats for a sin offering ; and, finally, the purely- 
expiatory sacrifices of the day, — a young bullock for the priesthood, 
including the high priest, and two goats for the people. 1 One of the 
goats was killed and its blood sprinkled on the altar ; the other, 
bearing symbolically the sins of the people, was sent into the wil- 
derness. In form the latter ceremony resembled that for the puri- 
fication of a leper. 2 Doubtless, also, it represented the same idea 
ceremonially. One of the goats w 7 as understood to atone for the 
people by its blood ; the other, which was said to be " for Azazel " 
(dismissal), showed the effects of such atonement — symbolized the 
total removal of guilt. By their union they represented more per- 
fectly him who, as the " Lamb of God," 3 " taketh away the sin of 
the world ;" being made sin for us " that w r e might become the right- 
eousness of God in him." 4 

24. The order of services on the day of atonement, at the time 
of our Lord, was established by rabbinical law. The high priest 
began his preparations for it seven days before, taking up his abode 
in the temple for that purpose. In view of the possibility of his 
becoming disabled, a substitute was appointed to take his place in 
such an emergency. The whole week was given up to participation 
in the daily sacrifices and to rites of purification. Since the duty 
of offering the fifteen sacrifices of the day of atonement rested solely 
upon him, he made sure that he understood the ritual. A kind of 
rehearsal seems to have taken place on the evening of the ninth 
of Tishri. At that time the Sanhedrin, fearing undue Sadducsean 
influence, bound the high priest by solemn oath to introduce no 
change into the accustomed service. 

On the tenth, public services began at early dawn. The high 
priest put on his official garments, w r ashed his hands and feet in a 
golden vessel, and offered the morning sacrifice. Five times during 
the day it was incumbent on him to bathe, and ten times to wash 
his hands and feet. The traditional order of service allowed the 
offering of some parts of the burnt sacrifices of the day immediately 
after the morning sacrifice ; but this does not accord with the instruc- 
tions given in Leviticus. 5 The most peculiar rite of the day, the 
offering of the expiatory sacrifices, was preceded by another change 
of raiment, the high priest now clothing himself wholly, even to his 
girdle, in white; then, with his hands on the head of the bullock, 
he made confession for himself and for Ins brethren of the house of 

i Ex. 30 : 10 ; Lev. 1G : 1-34 ; 23 : 26-32 ; Num. 29 : 7-11. 2 Lev. 14 : 1-7. 3 j h n i : 29, 

* 2 Cor. 5:21. 6 Lev. 16. 



THE SACRED SEASONS. 279 

Aaron. At every meDtion of the name of the Lord the people near 
by bowed themselves, while the more remote made praiseful response. 
Next, it was determined by lot which of the two goats was to be 
offered upon the altar and which was " for dismissal." The bullock 
presented as a sin offering for the priests was thereupon killed and 
its blood caught in a vessel prepared for it. Following this act, the 
high priest entered the holy of holies with a censer of live coals 
and incense in his hand, the people meanwhile remaining silent and 
in worshipful attitude. Within the holy of holies he placed upon 
the coals the incense he had brought, and offered a brief prayer of 
supplication. Returning after a little, he received from an attend- 
ant the vessel of blood — which, to prevent coagulation, had been 
continually stirred — and, re-entering the holy of holies, sprinkled it 
in the direction of the supposed mercy-seat, once upward and seven 
times downward. Going back again to the holy place, he deposited 
the bowl of blood on a golden stand before the vail and killed the one 
of the two goats designated for sacrifice. With its blood he entered 
once more the most holy place and sprinkled it, as before, eight times 
in the direction of the mercy-seat. Coming again into the view of 
the people, he placed the bowl by itself on another stand before the 
vail. Taking then the bowl of bullock's blood, he sprinkled in the 
same manner with it eight times in the direction of the vail, and 
afterwards other eight times with the blood of the goat. Follow- 
ing this, he thoroughly mixed together the blood of both which 
remained and sprinkled with it the horns and top of the altar. 
Forty-three times in all he made this sign of cleansing, taking care 
always that none of the blood lighted upon his garments. What 
remained of it at the conclusion of the ceremonies he poured out at 
the base of the altar. Thus, according to the law, he made atone- 
ment for the holy sanctuary, the tabernacle of the congregation, for 
the altar, for the priests and for all the people. 1 

25. For Azazel. — One thing more the Mosaic law required in 
this impressive ceremony of expiation : to send off into the wilder- 
ness the remaining goat, the sins of the people having first been 
placed symbolically upon its head. Rabbinical law demanded that 
the goat should not simply be driven into the wilderness, but be 
hurled backward into an abyss. The spot selected for the purpose 
is said to have been a rocky place east of Bethany. The moment 
of its accomplishment was signalled to the worshippers at the temple 
by means of flags. Meanwhile the carcass of the sin offering had 

i Lev. 1G : 33. 



280 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

been removed outside the city limits and burnt; 1 the high priest 
had read in the "court of the women" such passages of the Pen- 
tateuch as bore on the observance of the day, interspersing the 
reading with appropriate confessions and supplications, and the 
remaining sacrifices of the day, including the evening sacrifices, 
were offered. The evening of the day of atonement, in the time 
of our Lord and later, was given up to festivities. Modern Jews 
keep, the day by abstinence from labor and a rigid fast. The rules 
of the synagogue do not allow one to put on his "shoes" (sandals) 
or wash himself. Young children and the sick alone are exempt 
from the obligation. 

26. Much has been made, by some modern critics, of the circum- 
stance that the historical books of the Old Testament never speak 
of the observance of the day of atonement. 2 But the same is true 
of the feast of the new moon ; and that of Pentecost is only inci- 
dentally alluded to in 2 Chronicles 8 : 13. In the Pentateuch there 
is a fourfold presentation of the law respecting the day of atone- 
ment, and the institution stands most intimately connected with 
others about whose historical reality there can be no dispute. In 
fact, the whole Mosaic system of laws is permeated by its spirit and 
formally bound to it by many indirect references. The day of 
atonement, indeed, holds as central a place among the institutions 
of Judaism as does the fact of atonement among the doctrines and 
religious teachings of Christianity. Every allusion to the ark, for 
example, carries with it a tacit recognition of this day ; for the title 
"mercy-seat" is based both formally and morally on the act of the 
high priest in sprinkling there the blood of the atonement. More- 
over, the second temple — for which the critics referred to suppose 
the rites of the day of atonement were specially invented — was with- 
out the ark. The high priest could only sprinkle the blood near 
the spot where he might suppose the ark originally stood. 

27. PuriMv — In this connection two important post-Mosaic fes- 
tivals claim attention — puritn and the feast of dedication. The 
first, called also, in 2 Maccabees 15:36, "the day of Mordecai," 
fell on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar, the last month of the 
Jewish ecclesiastical year. 3 It was established by Mordecai, and 
commemorated the deliverance of the Jews from the destruction 
threatened by Haman, prime-minister of the Persian empire in the 
reign of Xerxes. Two days were devoted to the feast, since the 
Jews of Susa had needed two days to complete the overthrow of 

i Hub. 13 : 11-13. 2 See Ecclus. 50 : 5 ; Acts 27 : 9. 3 Esth. 9 : 17. 



THE SACKED SEASONS. 281 

their enemies. The name purim, meaning " lots," was given to the 
feast in irony. It was by lot that Haman had decided to destroy 
the Jews on the thirteenth of Adar. 1 A root similar to this has 
been found in the later Persian ; though the word might be derived 
from the Hebrew pur, meaning to separate. 

Originally the feast consisted of a social meal combined with 
various festivities and the sending of portions to others. 2 There is a 
bare intimation in the book of Esther that the thirteenth of Adar 
was also observed, and in a somewhat different manner from the 
other two days. 3 After the ninth century of our era there is his- 
torical evidence of such observance, but not earlier; though the 
tradition that the feast began with a fast is widespread. From the 
first book of Maccabees we learn that from about B.C. 161 the thir- 
teenth of Adar was kept as Mcanor's day, that being the date of 
his defeat by Judas the Maccabee/ This circumstance, joined with 
the fact that the Jews in Babylon were unfavorable to this fast, 
reuders its genuineness doubtful. The early observance of purim 
itself — that is, the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar — is vouched for 
both by the second book of Maccabees and by Joseph us. 5 Both 
recensions of the Greek additions to Esther also bear witness to the 
same effect. 6 These additions arose not later than B.C. 52, and may 
have originated as early-as B.C. 181-145, during the reign of Ptol- 
emy Philometer. Among the Jews of a later day it was customary 
to read, some time during this feast, the whole of the book of Esther. 
It might be read in any language. In modern times the occasion 
has degenerated to one of great and often immoderate hilarity. It 
is generally supposed that the "feast of the Jews" mentioned in 
John 5 : 1 as having been attended by our Lord was this purim 
feast. 7 It may have been, however, the feast of dedication, although 
in other cases where the latter feast is mentioned its full title is 
given to it. 

28. The Feast of Dedication. — The feast of dedication dates 
from the reconsecration of the altar and temple at Jerusalem after 
their defilement by Antiochus Epiphanes. 8 It lasted eight days, 
beginning on the twenty-fifth of Chislev, corresponding to Decem- 
ber. In its ceremonial it somewhat resembled the feast of taber- 
nacles, in that branches of trees were carried about the streets, the 
temple was illuminated and the Hallel daily chanted. This resem- 

i Esth. 3:7, 13; 9:24, 27. 2 Eath. 9 : 17-19, 22. » Esth. 9 : 18 ; cf. 4 : 16. * 1 Mace. 

7 : 48, 49. 5 2 Mace. 15 : 36 ; Josephus, Antiq. 11, 6 : 13. ° Add. 7 : 10. * See also John 

4 : 45 : 6 : 4. 8 i Mace. 4 : 52. 



282 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

blance was doubtless intended, since we read in 2 Maccabees, 1 " And 
they kept eight days with gladness, in the feast of tabernacles,, 
remembering how not long before, during the feast of tabernacles, 
they had dwelt in the mountains and in the caves like beasts." 
Another circumstance serving to give this form to the feast was 
that Solomon in the first dedication of the temple clearly had the 
feast of tabernacles in view. 2 

The second book of Maccabees is introduced by two letters pur- 
porting to be sent by the Jews of Palestine to those of Egypt, which 
recognize the observance of this festival. 3 In the time of Josephus 
it had considerably changed its character, having become a day of 
general rejoicing. After speaking of the institution of the day by 
Judas the Maccabee, this writer goes on to say : " And from that 
time to this we celebrate this festival and call it ' lights.' I suppose 
the reason is because this liberty beyond our hope appeared to us ; 
and that from this the name was given." * By the later Jews fast- 
ing and mourning were forbidden during this season. Each night 
it was expected that at least one oil lamp would be lighted outside 
every door, even that of the poorest family. It was regarded as 
highly meritorious if as* many lamps were lighted as there were 
members of the household ; and better yet if that number w 7 ere 
doubled through every night of the eight. . This custom was rabbin- 
ically explained as arising from the fact of a miracle by which Judas 
had been supplied with oil for the lamps of the sanctuary. Most 
likely, however, it had its origin from the custom of illuminating 
the temple at the feast of tabernacles. The feast of dedication and 
that of our Saviour's birth have both, it is true, the same date ; but 
the Christmas tree, with its many lights, had another origin. 

12 Mace. 10:6. 2 1 Kings 8. 3 2 Mace. 1, 2. * Josephus, Anliq. 12, 7 : 7. 




THE SACRED SEASONS. 



283 



TABLE OF HEBREW FESTIVALS AND FASTS. 



MONTH. 

Nisan (Abib)=April 
(approximately 



Iyar (Ziv)=May 
Sivan=June . 



Tanmiuz=Julv 



DAY. FESTIVAL. 

.1 New Moon ("Trumpets"). 

. 14 Slaying of Passover. . . . 

. 15-21 Feast of Unleavened Bread. 
. 16 Waving of sheaf of new bar- 
ley 

. 1 New Moon. 

. 15 " Second Passover " . . . . 

. 1 New Moon. 

. 6 Pentecost 



. 1 New Moon. 

. 17 Fast. . . 



Ab=August 1 New Moon. 

9 Fast. . . 



Elul=Sept. . . . 
Tishri (Ethauim^ 



Marcheshvan (Bui 
Chislev=Dec. . . 



=Nov. 



Tebeth=Jan. 



Shebat=Feb. 
Adar=Marcb 



15 Feast of " Wood Offerings." 

1 New Moon. 

1 New Year's Feast. 

3 Fast 

10 Day of Atonement. 

15-21 Feast of Tabernacles. 

22 Closing festival of the year. 

1 New Moon. 

1 New Moon. 

25 Feast of Dedication. 

1 New Moon. 

10 Fast 

1 New Moon. 

1 New Moon. 

13 Fast of Estlier. 

14, 15 Feast of Purim. , . . . . 



REMARKS. 



Passover was eaten on the 
following evening. 

Barley harvest began on 
17th. 

See Num. 9 : 5-14. 

Fifty days from the Pass- 
over. 

Taking of Jerusalem (on the 
ninth by Nebucbadnezzar) 
by Titus. 

Destruction of temple. See 

Jer. 52 : 12, 13. 
SeeNeh. 10:34; 13:31. 



Murder of Gedaliah (Jer. 
41 : 20). 



Siege of Jerusalem (Jer. 39 : 
2). 



The more strict Jews of our 
Lord's time observed Mon- 
day and Friday of each 
week as a private fast. See 
Luke 18 : 12. 



CHAPTER XII. 

SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 

1. The tabernacle was Israel's first historic sanctuary. In lead- 
ing them out of Egypt God had manifested himself to them in the 
pillar of cloud and of fire. Wonderful and condescending as was 
this means of communicating with his people, it was only the first 
stage in that series of divine manifestations which culminated in the 
incarnation. At Sinai, accordingly, Israel was commanded to pre- 
pare a place for God that he might dwell among them. At a later 
period he is pleased to speak of this place as having been his dwell- 
ing-place : " I have not dwelt in an house since the day that I 
brought up the children of Israel out of Egypt, even to this day, 
but have walked in a tent and in a tabernacle." 1 The various 
names applied to the tabernacle serve to show the purposes for 
which it was intended. It is called, for example, a " tent," to show 
its movable and transitory character. It is called the " tent of 
meeting" and the "tent of witness," to signify that here, by special 
appointment, God met and communed with his people, and that 
here, within the ark, were the tables of stone, Jehovah's testimony 
to Israel respecting what he required. It is called also an " abode," 
a " sanctuary," as being the place where the holy presence of Jeho- 
vah was to be specially manifested, in distinction from the infre- 
quent and transitory theophanies of the past. For much the same 
reason it was sometimes known as a " palace" or "temple." 2 

The work of erecting the tabernacle was planned, as we are 
informed, immediately after the first group of laws was given from 
Sinai and the covenant established with Israel. The gross defec- 
tion that took place in the matter of the golden calf seems to have 
delayed its execution. In answer to the prayer of Moses, however. 
a sanctuary was temporarily provided by the erection of a tent for 
the purpose just outside the camp. Apparently it was the one that 
had hitherto served as the tent of the leader of the host. It was 
pitched without the camp as a sign that Jehovah held in abhorrence 
that spirit of idolatry which had recently been manifested. The 
record of the actual carrying out of the plan of building the taber- 

i 2 Sam. 7:6. 2 Ex. 25 : 22 ; 29 : 42-46 ; 1 Sam. 1:9; 813; 1 Chron. 20 : 1, 19; Ps. 5 : 7. 

284 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 285 

nacle — the details of which are given in Exodus, chapters 25-31 — 
is found in the same book, chapters 35-40. At God's command the 
materials were provided by the people, and the work was executed 
under the direction of Bezaleel, of the tribe of Judah, and Oholiab, 
of the tribe of Dan. 1 

2. The court of the tabernacle was rectangular in form. Its 
length was one hundred cubits and its breadth fifty cubits ; the cubit 
being equivalent here, as we may suppose, to about one foot and a 
half. It was enclosed by a row of wooden pillars on which was 
suspended a canvas screen. Each of the pillars was five cubits in 
height, and the space between them was also five cubits. It has 
been found puzzling by some to place sixty pillars (the number 
given in the Bible) around this court with twenty on each side and 
ten on each end. The difficulty will disappear if it be remembered 
that after placing twenty pillars on the side, but nineteen spaces 
would be inclosed, hence the first pillar on the end should be placed 
in the same line with those on the sides ; and in order to inclose ten 
spaces on the end, the first pillar on the second side should be on a 
line with those on the end. By this arrangement, in the first corner 
would be number twenty-one of the pillars ; in the second, number 
thirty-one ; in the third corner, number fifty-one ; and the last pillar 
placed, number sixty. 

The pillars had sockets of bronze or copper at the base, and at 
the top a capital which was overlaid with silver. The screen was 
made of fine twined linen. It was attached to the pillars by means 
of rods which extended from one pillar to another and by hooks, 
both of silver. This screen was unbroken except at the entrance 
on the eastern side. Here was a curtain, twenty cubits wide, of 
more elaborate Avorkmanship, being the " work of the embroiderer 
of* blue, of purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen." It was of 
the same breadth as the screen. Within this court — which formed, 
as will be noticed, a double square — was placed, first, toward the 
east and directly in front of the entrance, the altar of burnt offer- 
ing ; a little further on, the laver ; and finally the tabernacle proper 
with its furniture. These articles may be described in their order. 

3. The Altar of Burnt Offering. — The altar of burnt offer- 
ing was a square, hollow structure, each side measuring five cubits 
and the height being three cubits. It was built of planks of acacia 
wood, which were overlaid with what is called in our English ver- 
sions " brass ;'.' but bronze or copper is probably intended, as in 

i Ex. 35 : 30-35. 



286 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



other places where this term is used in the Old Testament. The 
altar had horns at each upper corner, aud they were of one piece 
with the rest of the structure. No steps being allowed, 1 the altar 
was approached by means of an inclined plane, probably of earth. 
The inside was most likely filled with the same material when it was 
stationary and in use. 2 It was provided with rings on two of its 
sides and with staves plated with brass for carrying it. Halfway 

between the bottom and top was a 
projection or ledge, and beneath 





Supposed form of the Altar of Burnt Offer- 
ing in the Tabernacle. 



Supposed form of the Altar of Burnt 
Offering in the Temple. {From Surm- 
husius's Mishna.) 



this a brazen netting extending around the four sides of the altar. 
The rings just mentioned were placed at the point where this net- 
ting met the projection. It seems likely also that the inclined plane 
of earth or other material extended upward to this projection on the 
altar. The distance to its top would still be about tw r o and one half 
feet. The instruments and vessels belonging to the altar are described 
as "pots" (for the ashes), "shovels," "basins," " flesh-hooks " and 
" fire-pans." All of these were of brass. 

4. The Laver. — The laver was apparently a round brazen vessel. 
It stood, as we have said, between the altar of burnt offering and the 
tabernacle proper. The water was used by the priests in cleansing 
themselves before entering the holy place or offering sacrifice. It may 
also have served for washing the flesh of the animals offered in sac- 
rifice. It was made of the brass obtained from the mirrors presented 
for the purpose by the women of Israel. 3 It rested on a base or on 
feet of the same material. 

5. The Tabernacle. — The tabernacle itself w T as a rectangular 
structure thirty cubits long, ten cubits wide and ten cubits high. 
These dimensions are not directly given in the Bible, but may be 
safely inferred from statements it does make, the same being sup- 
ported by Josephus, 4 and by the corresponding dimensions of Sol- 
omon's temple. The sides of the tabernacle were composed of 

Ex. 20:26. 2 Ex. 20 : 24, 25. » Ex. 38 : 8. * Josephus, Antiq. 3, 6 : 3. 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 



287 



boards of acacia wood, forty-eight in number. Forty were used on 
the north and south sides and eight on the west side. Each of these 
boards was provided at the bottom with a couple of tenous of silver 
which fitted iuto a silver socket of the weight of a talent, or nearly a 
hundred pounds. The boards were also gilded. To hold them 
together, they had rings, apparently on the outside, through which 
gilded bars were passed, five in number for each of the three sides, — 
oue of the bars or series of bars extending along, continuously as we 
may suppose, the centre of the boards. Whether it was one contin- 
uous piece or made up of several 
pieces, the end of one piece being 
thrust into that of the next, as 
Josephus alleges, 1 it is not possible 
to say. That acacia boards of the 
size of those here described might 
have been made of trees to be 
found at this time on the sinaitic 
peninsula there is no good reason 
to doubt. 

The two corner boards on the 
back side of the tabernacle are 
described as "double beneath, and 
in like manner they were entire 

UntO the top thereof UntO One Form of a Brazen Laver on Wheels. 

ring." 2 It has been thought by 

.some that the Bible represents that in width each of the boards on 
the west end was like those on the two sides, that is, one and a half 
cubits wide. In that case we should have as the outside width of 
the entire structure twelve cubits. We must, then, understand the 
dimensions given by Josephus as being those of the inside. And 
further, we should be compelled to believe that the planks were of 
extraordinary thickness, — rather beams than planks or boards. But 
neither of these inferences is necessary or probable. The Bible, 
while giving the width of the planks in general, expressly excepts 
those of the two corners where the planks are joined to form an 
angle or post ; the two together being, as w T e may accordingly infer, 
in this case one cubit in width. Of the space inclosed within this 
structure now, one third (that on the west side) was set apart for 
the so-called holy of holies. It contained only the ark with its fur- 
niture, the mercy-seat, and the tables of the law. In form it was 

i Josephus, Antiq. 3, 6 : 3. 2 Ex. 36 : 29. 





A Front View of the Tabernacle with its Tent. For description, see pages 286-295. 





SL4? 



Form of Golden Candlestick carried in 
Triumph by Titus at Rome, after the Cap- 
ture of Jerusalem. {From the Arch of Titus.) Forms of Ancient Egyptian Censers, found 

on the Monuments. ( Wilkinson.) 




Ancient Egyptian Winged Cherubs, pro- 
tecting the figure of a god. (From the Monu- Supposed form of the .Molten Sou, or Great 
ments.) Layer, made by Solomon for the Temple. 

288 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 289 

exactly a cube, being ten cubits broad, long and high. The other 
two thirds of the space of the tabernacle formed what was known 
as the holy place. It was twenty cubits long by ten cubits wide 
and high. In it was placed on one side the golden candlestick, 
opposite to it the table of shew-bread, and between them, but nearer 
to the holy of holies, the altar of incense. 

6. The Holy of Holies. — The holy of holies was separated 
from the holy place by a " vail of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and 
fine twined linen : with cherubim the work of the cunning work- 
man." * It was hung by golden hooks on four pillars of acacia wood, 
overlaid with gold and standing in sockets of silver. A screen sep- 
arated also, in part, the front of the tabernacle from the outer court. 
It is described in the same terms as the vail before the inner sanc- 
tuary, excepting that it was not the work of a " cunning workman," 
and did not have the cherubim ; it was suspended also on five golden 
pillars instead of four, and their sockets were of brass. The sugges- 
tion of one commentator that one post, the middle one, was higher 
than the rest, and formed one of the supports for a ridge-pole, over 
which the tent covering was placed, must be regarded as, in the cir- 
cumstances, somewhat extravagant. It is more likely to have had 
something to do with the different arrangement of the curtains, 
which is also suggested by the diverse description of these pillars 
as having "chapiters" and "fillets," that is, capitals and rods. It 
would at least have been desirable in the case of this much-used 
curtain that, unlike that of the holy of holies which was suspended 
on hooks, it might be easily moved to one side. The extra pillar 
would on this supposition have been advantageous in giving support 
to the rod. The distance betw r een the pillars would still have been 
three feet. 

7. The covering of the tabernacle was of four kinds. 2 That which 
was laid on first, and directly over the tops of the planks forming 
the enclosure, is called " the tabernacle." It Avas in two parts, each 
twenty cubits wide and twenty-eight long. These two parts were 
severally made up of five smaller pieces fastened (probably sewed) 
together, and then the two in turn were joined by means of fifty 
loops in their respective borders and by golden clasps. The material 
of this covering is described as of " fine twined linen, and blue, and 
purple, and scarlet, with cherubim ;" that is, with figures of cher- 
ubim embroidered upon the stuff. Supposing that, when completed, 
it was laid evenly on the structure, it v/ould have fallen over the 

i Ex. 26:31. 2 Ex. 26: 1, 6, 7 ; 36 : 8, 14. 

19 



290 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

two ends five cubits, and on the sides would have failed to reach the 
ground only by one cubit. It was enjoined, however, that it should 
be put on iu such a" manner that the line of division between the two 
curtains should coincide with that separating the holy place from the 
inner sanctuary. 1 On the back side, accordingly, the covering would 
nearly have reached the ground. 

A second covering, intended to be a " tent over the tabernacle," 
was of goat's hair, a common material for tent-cloth. It had two 
parts like the preceding, one of them being composed of five pieces, 
thirty cubits long by four wide, the other of six, of the same size. 
The two were coupled together like the first two. Supposing that 
when united it had been laid over the structure in such a manner that 
the place of coupling corresponded with that of the first covering, 
there would be one breadth of four cubits to hang over the front, 
besides a sufficient amount to cover the whole of the back and two 
sides down quite near to the ground. Such an arrangement con- 
forms exactly to the directions given in Exodus. 2 By such an ar- 
rangement, too, the inside covering, as was probably intended, would 
be completely protected by the outer one. Moreover, it is not un- 
likely that the second covering was provided with cords and fast- 
ened, like the ordinary tent, to the ground with pins. We at least 
read of the pins of the tabernacle as distinct from the pins of the 
court. 3 

8. But what is to be said of the two other coverings of which we 
read in Exodus 26 : 14? "And thou shalt make a covering for the 
tent of rams' skins dyed red, and a covering of sealskins above." 
If they were to be put on as the others were, would there not seem 
to be an excess of this kind of covering? Instead of keeping out 
dampness from the interior in the case of rain, would they not have 
had a tendency to produce it, besides being highly inconvenient in 
other respects ? And where, in that case, would be the tent form 
from which the whole structure had its name? Happily we are not 
restricted to this method of putting on the additional coverings. 
As far as the Bible is concerned the matter is left entirely open. 
While the form, measurement and method of placing the other two 
coverings are stated in detail, here it is simply said that a covering 
is to be made for the " tent," that is, the second covering, and the 
materials of which it is to be made are indicated. 

What we should most naturally think of would be an actual tent 
overspreading the remaining structure and reaching out some dis- 

1 Ex. 26 : 33. 2 Ex. 2G : 9, 12, 13. 3 Ex. 27 : 19 ; 35 : 18. 



SANCTUARIES OF ISEAEL. 



291 



tance into the court. In the preparation of this tent dyed rams' 
skins and the skins of seals might be employed in ways that would 
easily suggest themselves to persons who were continually using skins 
for this purpose. It is an interesting confirmation of the view here 
taken that the word rendered covering in our passage is not the 
same as that used for the other two coverings of the tabernacle, but i 
is that used of the roof of the ark which Noah built. 1 And while 
Moses is spoken of as "erecting" the tabernacle, he is said to have 
"spread" the tent, that is, the second covering, over the tabernacle, 
and to have put the covering of the tent, that is, the tent of rams' 
skins, etc., "above upon it; as the Lord commanded Moses." 2 The 
Hebrew used is peculiar and makes the impression that the covering 
of skins was of the nature of a roof somewhat elevated above the 
others. The matter has been more fully discussed because of the 
confusion of ideas prevailing upon the subject. 

9. The Aek. — The articles of furniture contained in the taber- 
nacle have already been enumerated. Within the inner sanctuary, 
or the holy of holies, was the " ark of the 
covenant." It was so called on account 
of the two tables of stone which were there 
placed. 3 In form it was a simple chest of 
acacia w T ood, in width and height one cubit 
and a half and in length two cubits and 
a half. It was overlaid throughout with 
gold. Rings were placed at the four cor- 
ners and fitted with staves for carrying it. 
Around the top was a gilded rim or mould- 
ing, and the lid, which was called the 
" mercy-seat," was of solid gold. On each 
end of this lid, and of one piece with it, 

. . , n n i l in Supposed form of Ark ol the Cov- 

was set the figure of a cherub, made from enant. 

beaten gold. The two cherubim faced J*K3Ti^"« M5££ffi 
inward and covered the mercy-seat with cherubim - For other forms> see p - 288 - 
their wings. This was the most holy place of the sanctuary. The 
high priest alone could enter it once in the year, and then only 
amidst clouds of incense. " There," said Jehovah, " I will meet 
with thee, and I will commune with thee from above the mercy-seat, 
from between the two cherubim which are upon the ark of the testi- 
mony, of all things which I will give thee in commandment unto 
the children of Israel." 4 Besides the tables of stone there were at 




i Gen. 8 : 13. 



2 Ex. 40 : 19 ; cf. Num. 4 : 25. 



3 Ex. 25 : 10, 16. 



4 Ex. 25 : 22. 



292 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 




Supposed form of Altar 01 Incense, 
or Golden Altar. 



one time by the ark a pot of manna and Aaron's rod that budded. 1 
All except the first were lost, as it would seem, while the ark was 
in the possession of the Philistines, or earlier. The ark itself was 
probably burnt when Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem. 2 

10. The Altar of Incense. — Nearest the veil, outside the holy 
of holies, was the altar of incense. 3 Its position is not without sig- 
nificance. 4 From the fact that it was over- 
laid throughout with gold it received also 
the name of the "golden altar." Like the 
ark, it had a gilded moulding about the 
top, beneath which, on two of its sides, the 
four rings were found by which it was 
borne. It was a cubit long and broad 
and two cubits high. The original altar 
was made of acacia wood ; that of Solo- 
mon of cedar. The only religious service 
which took place specially at this altar 
was the offering of incense made there 
each morniDg and evening, and the sprink- 
ling of it with blood on the day of atonement. An altar of incense 
is spoken of in Revelation as a part of the furniture of the heavenly 
temple. 5 

11. The Table of Shew-bread. — The table of shew-bread also 
was made of acacia, or shittim, wood. 6 In form it was like or- 
dinary tables, excepting the rings on the two 
sides and the inserted staves which were 
never removed. It was two cubits long, a 
cubit in breadth, and a cubit and a half 
high. It had " a border of an handbreadth 
round about" and " a golden crown to the 
border." This "border" appears to have 
been a framework somewhat below the up- 
per surface of the table, and intended as a 
support for it. The " crown " (rim) of the 
border and the "crown" of the table are 
clearly distinguished. The former was a 
moulding intended principally for ornamentation. That on the sur- 
face of the table would also be of use. The table was plated over 
in every part with gold. On it were to be found at all times " dishes," 

i Ex. 16 :33; Num. 17:10; Dent, 31:.26; Heb. 9:4. 21 Kings 8:1, .9; 2 Chron. 35:3. 

3 Ex. 30 : 1-10, 34-38. * 1 Kings G : 22 ; Heb, 9:4. & Rev. 8 : 3, 4. » Ex. 25 : 23. 




Supposed form of the Table of 
Shew-bread. 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 293 

" spoons," " flagons " and " bowls." We may infer that the dishes 
were for the bread ; the spoons for the frankincense ; and the flagons 
and bowls for the drink offerings. Every Sabbath twelve loaves 
of bread, covered with frankincense, called "shew- [Heb. "pres- 
ence "] bread " were placed upon the table. On the following Sabbath 
they were removed and others substituted. The old frankincense was 
at the same time burned upon the altar and the bread eaten in the 
sanctuary by the priests. 1 At a later period the name given to the 
bread was "array-bread" or "row-bread." 2 In Solomon's temple, 
too, instead of the one provided for in the original law there were ten 
tables, In the representation of the table of shew-bread on the arch 
of Titus at Rome the two borders plainly appear. The lower one is 
around the middle of the legs. It supports the two silver horns of 
the priests. And instead of being borne by means of staves extending 
through rings this table is carried from the base on men's shoulders. 3 

12. The Candlestick. — The only remaining article of furniture 
in the tabernacle was the golden candlestick or candelabrum. 4 The 
principal part of it, the lamp proper, consisted of an upright shaft 
resting on a pedestal, and having a cup at its top which, when pro- 
vided w r ith oil and a wick, served for a lamp. From this central 
shaft proceeded six others, three on each side, all being on the same 
plane, and all probably extending upward to the same level. The 
candlestick stood opposite the table of shew-bread, on the south side 
of the tabernacle. It was made throughout of beaten gold, a talent 
in weight being required for the purpose.* Tradition gives its height 
as five feet and its extreme breadth as three and a half feet. It was 
ornamented along its several shafts with flower cups, the main shaft 
having four and the others three. Their form was that of the calyx 
of the almond blossom. The top of each shaft was surmounted by 
a ball-like protuberance, from which sprang a flower, and in this 
flower was found the cup containing the oil. (See illustration, p. 288.) 
The immediate object of the candlestick, the holy place being with- 
out natural light, was to give light to the priests in the performance 
of their duties. But it was doubtless intended to have also a sym- 
bolical significance. 5 

It was one of the duties of the priests to fill the cups of the candle- 
stick with the finest oil every evening, and to trim the wicks every 
morning, using golden snuffers and dishes provided for the purpose. 6 

1 Lev. 24 : 5-9 ; cf. 1 Sam. 21 : 3-6. 2 Neh. 10 : 33 (Hebrew). 3 Josephus, Antiq. 3, 6 : 6. 
* Ex. 23 : 31-40. 5 p s . 36 : 9 : 104 : 2 ; Isa. 10 : 17 ; Zech. 4:1-6; John 8 : 12 ; 1 Tim. 6 : 16. 

6 Ex. 27 : 20. 



294 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

They appear to have been kept burning day and night, although in 
the time of Josephus but three were burnt during the day (Antiq. 
3, 8 : 3). As Solomon placed ten tables of shew-bread in the temple 
which he built, so he had made for it ten golden candlesticks. 1 His 
object in both instances seems to have been to add to the glory of 
the building. In the second temple there was but one candlestick. 2 
This was removed by Antiochus Epiphanes, but restored by Judas 
the Maccabee. 3 It was most likely this candlestick of Judas which 
Titus afterwards carried to Rome, and that is represented now on 
the arch erected in Titus' honor. It resembles in its general out- 
line the one described in the Pentateuch. The eagles and sea 
monsters engraved upon it were doubtless the work of later pagan 
hands. 

13. The historical reality of the Mosaic tabernacle has been severely 
assailed by certain modern critics. But it is supported not alone by 
one portion of the Pentateuch, but almost equally by every part into 
which these critics arbitrarily partition it. 4 And this testimony the 
following history abundantly confirms. It was a singular act of 
David to erect a tent on Mount Zion for the ark which he had brought 
from Kirjath-jearim, considering especially its more recent history 
and the demands of his own times. 5 It would be well-nigh inexpli- 
cable without the Mosaic precedent for it. The assumption that the 
Israel of the exodus had not the requisite skill to execute a work of 
this kind is rapidly disappearing before the remarkable archeolog- 
ical discoveries of modern times. The objection that this people 
was not provided with the requisite means for transporting through 
the trackless wastes of the sinaitic peninsula such a mass of material 
is equally wide of the mark. 

It is nowhere stated in the Pentateuch that the six wagons and 
twelve yoke of oxen at the service of the Levites for carrying pur- 
poses were all the means at hand for this object. 6 It w 7 as to the 
family of Merari that the transportation of the heavier parts of the 
tabernacle was assigned. According to the record it formed an army 
of thirty-two hundred able-bodied men, between the ages of thirty 
and fifty years. This should have been found an amply sufficient 
force, on any reasonable theory of the structure of the tabernacle. 
The objection that the Pentateuch recognizes a two-fold tabernacle 
has been already touched upon. It could never have been urged 
except on the theory that the five books of the Pentateuch are a 

i 1 Kings 7 : 49. 2 Eoolus. 2fi : 17. 3 1 Mnoc. 4 : 49. « Ex. 88 : 7-11 ; Lev. 17 ; Num. 

10 : 35; 11 : 16; Deut. 10 : 1-5 ; 31 : 14. 6 2 Sam. 7:2. 6 Num. 7 : 8, 9. 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 295 

patchwork of different and often conflicting documents. After the 
tabernacle was planned the defection of Israel made its immediate 
erection inexpedient. In the interval, the leader's tent, pitched for 
a special reason outside the camp, was used as the " tent of meeting." 1 
It was not the tabernacle proper : for the Levitical institutions had 
not yet been established. 

14. The tabernacle, in the nature of the case, was not intended to 
be a permanent sanctuary. Its history subsequent to its dedication, 
in the second year of the exodus, runs parallel with that of Israel 
until the entrance into the promised land. Afterwards, for a con- 
siderable period, it seems to have remained at Gilgal, the headquar- 
ters of Joshua and the Israelitish army. 2 Following the conquest, 
it was for a long time at Shi] oh. 3 Here in fact it appears to have 
remained during the whole period of the judges. While at Shiloh the 
tabernacle is called a "house," and again a "palace" or "temple," 
of Jehovah. It is also spoken of as having door-posts and the like. 4 
From this language it has been assumed by some that it had alto- 
gether changed its character, and become a building instead of a tent. 
But such a supposition directly contradicts other passages which pre- 
suppose its tent form at this period. 5 The probable harmony of the 
two classes of references lies in the supposition that the tabernacle, 
while at Shiloh, had a temporary enclosure built around it, to which 
reference is sometimes made as though it were the tabernacle itself. 

When the ark was taken by the Philistines 6 the tabernacle 
naturally lost much of its glory and became less permanent. We 
hear of it at Nob during the reign of Saul, whence it was removed 
to Gibeon. 7 Here, as we learn from the books of Chronicles, 8 it 
divided the honors for a time, as the sanctuary of Jehovah, with the 
tent which David erected for the ark on Mount Zion. 9 Zadok, of 
the family of Eleazar, ministered at the former, and Abiathar, or 
his son Abimelech, at the latter. 10 This dualism, possible only during 
the transition state through which Israel was now passing, ceased in 
Solomon's day, with the defection and deposition of Abiathar. 11 We 
have no information concerning the removal of the tabernacle from 
Gibeon. The " tent of meeting " which was deposited in the temple 
may well have been that which David originally erected on Mount 
Zion. 12 Without the ark, the tabernacle was but the shell from Avhich 

i Ex. 33 : 7-11 ; Num. 10 : 33 ; 12 : 5 ; 14 : 14. 2 j os h. 4 : 19 ; 5 : 10 ; 9 : 6 ; 10 : 6 ; 14 : 6. s Josh. 
18 : 1, 10 ; 19 : 51 ; 22 : 12, 19, 29. * Judg. 18 : 31 ; 19 : 18 ; 1 Sara. 1 : 7, 9, 24 ; 3 : 3, 15. 5 1 Sam. 
2:22; Ps. 78:60. » 1 Sam. 4 : 11. "1 Kings 3: 4. s 1 Chron. 16 : 39-42; 21 : 29; 2 Chron. 
1 : 3-6, 13. 9 2 Sam. 6 : 17 ; 1 Chron. 15 : 1. w 1 Chron. 16 : 39 ; 24 : 3. « 1 Kings 2 : 26, 27. 
12 2 Chron. 5 : 5. 



296 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

the fruit had disappeared. With the temple immediately in view, 
it is not strange that it was overlooked and forgotten. 

15. Temple of Solomon. — The gathering of materials for the 
projected temple was mostly the work of David. He himself, as a 
man of blood, was not permitted to build it ; but it was promised 
him that a son of his should have that honor. 1 Solomon began its 
erection in the fourth year of his reign, which, according to the re- 
ceived chronology, was B.C. 1012, and four hundred and eighty years 
after the exodus from Egypt. He had the special assistance of 
Hiram king of Tyre, who had been the warm friend of his father. 
The temple was built on Mount Moriah, which lay eastward from 
Mount Zion and originally outside of the city's w T alls. It was com- 
pleted in seven years and dedicated with great pomp. In its ground 
plan the structure closely resembled the tabernacle, but with double 
its dimensions. 2 The main building was similarly divided into the 
holy place and the holy of holies, the former measuring twenty cubits 
each way, the latter forty cubits by twenty. In height, however, the 
temple was thirty cubits. Along the front side extended a porch 
having the width of the main building and being ten cubits deep. 

The height is not given in the book of Kings, but it cannot well 
have been greater — it may have been less — than that of the principal 
part. The statement in 2 Chronicles 3 : 4 that it was one hundred 
and twenty cubits high seems to rest on a corrupt text. It is called 
a "porch." If it had been a hundred and twenty cubits high, its 
title would have been more properly " tower." And it is scarcely 
probable, moreover, that so striking a feature of the building, had 
it existed, would have been overlooked in the book of Kings. It is 
true that the porch of Herod's temple was wider and higher than 
the main building, and that Josephus makes Herod say that the 
temple then before him, the one built by the exiles from Babylon, 
lacked sixty cubits of being as high as that of Solomon. 3 But it is 
likely that the dimensions of Solomon's temple were taken from this 
passage in second Chronicles. 

16. Solomon's temple was entered from the east between two 
massive pillars called respectively Jachin, " he shall establish," and 
Boaz, " in it is strength" (?) — the former standing on the right. The 
dimensions of these pillars are variously stated ; but the account in the 
book of Kings seems the most trustworthy, which gives the height 
as eighteen cubits and the circumference as twelve cubits.* Upon 

i 2 Sam. 7 : 13 ; 1 Kings 5 : 1 ; 1 Chron. 22. 2 1 Kings 6 ; 2 Chron. 2-4 ; Josephus, Antiq.8 , 
3:3. 3 Josephus, Antiq. 15, 11:1. * 1 Kiugs 7 : 15 ; 2 Chrou. 3 : 15. 




Ground-Plan of Solomon's Temple. 



A-H % The Most Holy Place. 
ff, The Holy Place. 
V, The Entrance-Hall or Porch. 
K and K, Side Chambers. 
V, U, U, U, Corner-stones. 

S. S, The Two Pillars, Jachin and Boaz. 
BL, The Ark of the Covenant. 



c. c. The Cherubim. 
X, X, X, The Ten Golden Candlesticks and the Ten 
Tables. 
R, The Altar of Incense. 
TV, The "Winding Stair to the Stories in the Side 

Chambers. 
T, Table of Shew-Bread (but see 2 Chron. i : 8). 




The Scene from the Arch of Titus, Rome, representing bearing in triumph the Golden 

Candlestick and Table of Shew-Bread. The figures are partially defaced. 

(After a Photograph.) 



298 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

each was a chapiter five cubits deep, making the entire length of the 
pillar about thirty-five feet. A series of chambers, three stories 
high, were attached to the outside wall of the main building on 
three of its sides. The theory that the chambers described were 
rather receding galleries of increasing width, in the inside of the 
building, finds no support in the text of the book of Kings. These 
chambers were each five cubits in height ; but on account of the fact 
that the temple wall was less thick and receded as it went upward, 
they differed in width, the lower being five cubits, the second, six, 
and the third, seven. The cedar beams supporting the floor were 
not let into the walls of the temple, but rested on what is called in 
architecture a scarcement or offset, produced by their successive 
diminution upward. 

These chambers, supposing the foundation and floors required 
three cubits, would be altogether eighteen cubits high, reaching 
three cubits above the centre of the main building. The upper 
stories were reached by means of staircases from the lower ones. 
The text of the book of Kings is obscure at this point. It says : 
" The door for the middle side-chambers was in the right side of the 
house: and they went up by winding stairs into the middle chambers, 
and out of the middle into the third." The right side, looking to- 
ward the east, would be the south side. The first word rendered 
"middle" is translated "lowest" by the Septuagint and Targums. 
But the Hebrew text may still be correct, the sole end being to show 
how the middle and third stories were reached ; it being understood 
that the first one would have a door. According to Josephus, there 
were thirty chambers on each of the floors. 

17. The temple, and as we may suppose its surrounding chambers, 
had a series of windows ; but in the former they were for the pur- 
pose of ventilation rather than light. Light was obtained by means 
of the golden candelabrum. It is said, moreover, that the apertures 
were closed with " fixed lattice work," that is, they were not intended 
to be opened. The construction of the temple, as was doubtless 
designed, made windows in the oracle or holy of holies impossible. 
The number, form and position of the windows mentioned is not 
given ; but it is likely that those of the temple extended around the 
upper part of the wall on all sides except the front. 

The temple, like the tabernacle, had an enclosure or court around 
it which, in the book of Kings, is called the " inner court," and of 
which it is said that it was built of" three rows of hewn stones, and 
a row of cedar beams." It is implied that there was also an outer 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 299 

court, and the fact is directly stated in other parts of the Old Testa- 
ment. 1 The first court is elsewhere called the " court of the priests" 
and the "upper court." 2 The outer court, like the inner, was sur- 
rounded by a wall. Joseph us gives the height of these walls as 
three cubits. They may well have been ten cubits, corresponding 
to the dimensions of the temple in other respects as compared with 
the tabernacle. The row of cedar beams is to be thought of as laid 
on the wall horizontally and forming for it an ornamental coping. 
Nothing is said directly in the Bible concerning gates for these en- 
closures. From incidental passages, as where priestly gate-keepers 
are spoken of as forming three divisions, and a third entrance to the 
house of the Lord is named, 3 it may be safely inferred that there 
were three such. Both courts were paved with stones. The size of 
the courts can only be guessed. If the inner one was double that 
of the tabernacle, it would measure two hundred cubits in length 
by one hundred in breadth. 

18. The walls of the temple were built of stone, Josephus says of 
" white stone ;" and they may have been taken from a quarry which 
still exists near the Damascus gate. They were " made ready at the 
quarry : and there w T as neither hammer nor axe nor any tool of iron 
heard in the house, while it was in building." 4 The thickness of the 
walls is not given, but must have been considerable, judging from 
their great diminution as they w T ent upward, and from w 7 hat we know 
of the palace of Solomon, w r here "stones often cubits" and "stones 
of eight cubits" were made use of. 5 The roof was made of beams 
and boards of cedar. Whether it was flat or gabled is not said, but 
most likely the former, and that it was provided with a balustrade. 6 
The interior walls were wainscoted with boards of cedar, beautifully 
ornamented with carvings of cherubim, palms and flowers, and over- 
laid with gold. We may suppose that while the figures were in bas- 
relief, their outline was sunken, so that their upper surface did not 
extend beyond the surface of the boards ; at least this is the most 
common form of engraving found on the Egyptian monuments. 
The floor was of cypress wood, and, like the walls and ceiling, was 
overlaid with gold. 

19. The oracle was separated from the holy place by a partition 
of cedar boards, wdiich were doubtless ornamented like the rest of 
the temple's interior. It was entered by a tw r o-leaved door of olive 
wood which turned on golden hinges. " The lintel and door posts 

12 Kings 21:5; 23:12; 2 Chron. 33 : 5. 2 2 Chron. 4:9; Jer. 36:10. 3 2 Kings 25 : 18 ; 
Jer. 38 : 14 ; 52 : 24. U Kings 6: 7. & 1 Kings 7 : 10. «Deut. 22:8. 



300 SACKED ANTIQUITIES. 

were a fifth part of the wall" The door of the holy place was made 
of fir, the posts only being of olive wood. It was in two parts, each 
part, in turn, having two leaves. The whole door with its casing 
took up a fourth part of the wall, as that of the oracle had required 
a fifth. In addition to the door entering the oracle, we learn from 
2 Chronicles 3 : 14, a statement which is supported by Josephus 1 and 
the practice of the second temple, that there was also a vail of 
" blue, and purple, and crimson, and fine linen," with figures of 
cherubim embroidered upon it. Josephus says that the curtain was 
before the door. We may suppose, accordingly, that the door swung 
inward, and that the curtain was intended to protect the oracle from 
the curious gaze of the priests and others on the day of atonement 
and at other times when the door was opened. It is a singular fact 
that this vail is not mentioned in the book of Kings. Some have 
supposed that the perplexing passage in 1 Kings 6 : 21, where we 
read, " and he drew chains of gold across before the oracle," origin- 
ally read, " and he drew the curtain provided with golden chains 
across before the oracle." 

The dimensions of the holy of holies upward is given as twenty 
cubits, while the height of the holy place is thirty cubits. 2 It is 
probable that in 1 Kings 6 : 2 the exterior of the temple alone fc 
described. Externally, it is likely, the whole building was covered 
by one roof. This would leave a vacant space ten cubits high by 
twenty cubits long and broad above the oracle. It was shut off from 
the holy place by the partition of cedar boards before referred to. 
It is impossible to say for what purpose such a space was reserved. 
In Chronicles, also, we read of certain upper chambers of which else- 
where no information is given. Possibly only the upper tier of side- 
chambers may be here meant, or some that were made over the 
porch. It has been conjectured that the tent used by David for the 
ark, or possibly the relics of the ancient Mosaic tabernacle itself, 
were deposited over the holy of holies. The theory is attractive, but 
has absolutely nothing to support it; besides, in that case there 
would have been necessary a strong floor above the holy of holies. 
This could hardly have been secured across a space of thirty feet 
without beams. The beams, in turn, would need to be let into the 
temple walls, which would be contrary to the structure of the build- 
ing in other respects. Moreover, if this upper chamber were visited, 
another aperture through the wall, for a door, would have been 
needed. More likely than any of these hypotheses is the supposition 

1 Josephus, Antiq. 8, 3 : 3 and 7. 2 i Kings 6 : 2, 16, 20. 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 301 

that the object of shutting off the space was to make the dimensions 
of this oracle in all respects double that of the tabernacle. 

20. The Furniture. — The furnishing of Solomon's temple needs 
to be described only so far as it differs from that of the tabernacle. 
In the oracle were placed two additional cherubim of olive wood. 
The wood was carved (" image work ") and overlaid with gold. 
When spread, the wings of the cherubim were each five cubits long, 
and altogether they required the entire space that made up the 
western wall of the sanctuary. Their height was ten cubits. 1 It 
has already been noticed that the one table of shew-bread had been 
increased to ten in Solomon's temple, as had also the one candle- 
stick to ten candlesticks. They were ranged on the two sides of the 
holy place, five on each side. In two passages of the historical 
books but one table is spoken of in connection with this building. 2 
This fact has been regarded by some as indicating diversity of au- 
thorship and date. But it is more probable that in these instances 
the one table is referred to on which the bread was actually placed ; 
for it cannot well have been distributed on all of them. Moreover, 
by a well-known idiom of the Hebrew language the article is fre- 
quently used to distinguish one of a class. 

In place of the much smaller brazen altar of the tabernacle, the 
one in Solomon's temple was twenty cubits square by ten high. 3 
The tabernacle, too, had but a small laver for the use of the priests. 
Solomon supplanted it by what is called a molten sea. This was a 
receptacle for water, manufactured from melted copper or bronze, 
and was ten cubits in diameter and five cubits deep. The rim was 
highly ornamented, and the whole supported on the backs of twelve 
brazen oxen, standing together in groups of three, with their faces 
turned outward toward the several points of the compass. Ac- 
cording to the book of Kings, it had a capacity of two thousand 
baths — a bath being equal to about eight gallons. In Chronicles 
the capacity is stated as three thousand baths. 4 The difference may 
be due to a corruption of the text of Chronicles; or, in one case 
the actual capacity may be given, in the other the amount of water 
usually found in it. As even two thousand baths of liquid would 
more than fill a vessel of these dimensions if it w T ere hemispherical 
in shape, most likely this was spherical. The predilection of the 
Scriptures for round numbers and their avoidance of fractions is 
illustrated here in the fact that while they make the circumference 

i 1 Kings 6 : 23-28 ; 2 Chron. 3 : 10-13. 2 i Kings 7 : 48 ; 2 Chron. 29 : 18. 3 2 Chron. 4 : 1. 
* 1 Kings 7 : 23, 26 ; 2 Chron. 4 : 2, 5. 



302 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

of this receptacle thirty cubits, the diameter is said to have been ten 
cubits. It is well known that the exact diameter of a circle holds 
the relation to its circumference of 1 to 3.14159. 

The laver of the tabernacle was designed to provide a place where 
the priests might make their ablutions. Having supplied this want 
by the molten sea, Solomon had ten lavers made, corresponding to 
the ten candlesticks and ten tables of shew-bread, that the flesh to 
be offered on the altar of burnt offering might be cleansed in them. 1 
These lavers were placed on brazen pedestals, four cubits square by 
three cubits high, five on each side of the holy place. Each one 
held forty baths ; they must, accordingly, have been of consider- 
able size, and the water drawn from them, as from the molten sea, 
have been taken from beneath. The only indication of their dimen- 
sions is in 1 Kings 7 : 38, where each one is said to have been four 
cubits. The depth of the bowl is probably referred to. 2 

21. The temple of Solomon stood about four hundred years. It 
was destroyed by the army of Nebuchadnezzar, under Nebuzaradan, 
in the eleventh year of the reign of Zedekiah, having previously 
been plundered. 3 Comparing 2 Kings 25 : 8 with Jeremiah 52 : 12, 
an apparent discrepancy in dates is discovered. 4 The one gives the 
day of the burning of the temple as the seventh of the fifth month ; 
the other, as the tenth of that month. It is most likely, as the Tal- 
mud asserts, that between these two dates the capture, plundering 
and destruction of the temple are all included. The one account 
dates from the time the temple was taken ; the other, from that of 
its final overthrow. 

22. Temple of Zekubbabel. — Of the external appearance of 
the so-called temple of Zerubbabel, built by the exiles who returned 
from Babylon, the Bible furnishes little information. It was fin- 
ished and solemnly dedicated in the year B.C. 516. It doubtless 
occupied the same site as the structure erected by Solomon. It may 
have been of equal size, since it was not necessarily because, of its 
inferiority in this respect that the fathers, who had seen the glories 
of the original temple, wept at the sight of this one. 5 That, on the 
other hand, it was larger than Solomon's temple cannot be fairly 
inferred from Ezra 6 : 3, where Cyrus is said to have ordered that 
its height should be sixty cubits, nothing whatever being said of its 
length. 6 This same kind-hearted monarch directed that the " ex- 

i 1 Kings 7 : 27-39 ; 2 Chron. 4:6. 2 cf. 1 Kings 7 : 27, 32, 35. 3 2 Kings 25 : S, 13 ; 2 

Chron. 36 : 18 ; Jer. 52 : 12, 17. 4 See Baruch 1:2; Joseplms, Antiq. 10, 8 : 5 ; Josephus, Jewish 
Wars, 6, 4:5. & Ezra 3:12; Hag. 2:3. ° Josephus, Antiq. 15, 11:1. 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 303 

penses" of the building should be given out of the king's house. 
We have no evidence that either of the directions was actually car- 
ried out. There were special reasons why the inner dimensions of 
the secoud temple should not essentially differ from those of the 
first, in which the norm furnished by the tabernacle was carefully 
followed. We may therefore look upon those given by Cyrus as 
referring to the temple externally, if adopted at all, the additions 
included ; or as simply meant to carry the idea that the Jews might 
not only rebuild the temple, but build it, if they chose, to twice its 
former size. 

23. From the first book of Maccabees we learn that both the 
oracle and the holy place were provided with curtains. 1 Josephus 
states that the former was quite bare of any furnishing. 2 Accord- 
ing to the Talmudists, however, there was a stone set up in the place 
where the ark formerly had been. On this stoue, once in the year, 
the high priest sprinkled the blood of the sin offering. On the other 
hand, the second temple had but one candlestick and one table of 
shew-bread. It had also the altar of incense overlaid with gold; 3 
while its altar of burnt offering retained the size of that of Solomon's 
temple. 4 A reservoir for water is likewise mentioned in Ecclesias- 
ticus. 5 The last passage might lead one to infer that previous to 
the high-priesthood of Simon there had been no provision of this 
kind in the temple of Zerubbabel, or, if any, an inferior one. We 
are told incidentally, in the books of Nehemiah and Ezra, that the 
courts of this temple^were supplied with depositories, and with cells 
or cloisters for the priests. 6 

24. This temple was captured and plundered by Antiochus 
Epiphanes B.C. 168, who also celebrated idolatrous worship in it. 
Retaken by Judas Maccabseus, it was restored, cleansed and reded- 
icated exactly three years after its profanation. The golden crowns 
and shields with which this hero ornamented the front of the restored 
temple were less in harmony with its objects and history. 7 While 
Alexander Jannseus was high priest, he had built, for his own pro- 
tection, a wooden partition around the altar and that portion of the 
temple which it was lawful only for the priests to frequent. 8 Pom- 
pey captured, invaded, but did not sack, the building, w 7 hen he took 
Jerusalem, B.C. 63, during the consulate of Marcus Tullius Cicero. 
It was recklessly plundered of its treasures, however, by Crassus, 

1 1 Mace. 4 : 51. - Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 5, 5 : 5. 3 1 Mace. 1 : 22 ; 4 : 49. 4 Jose- 
phus, Against Apion, 1 , 22. 5 Ecelus. 50 : 3. <* Ezra 8 : 29 ; 10 : 6 ; Neh. 3 : 30 ; 10 : 37; 12 : 44 ; 
1 Mace. 4 : 38, 48. 1 1 Mace. 4 : 52, 54, 57. « Josephus, Antiq. 13, 13:5. 



304 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

who from B.C. 54-53 ruled in the province of Syria. 1 It greatly 
suffered also on the capture of Jerusalem by Herod, and the sacred 
precincts were stained with the blood of its many defenders. 2 

25. Temple of Herod. — The so-called temple of Herod deserves 
a fuller description than can well be given in these pages. No doubt 
personal ambition and a desire to ingratiate himself with the Jews 
were the principal motives influencing this monarch in entering upon 
so difficult and costly an undertaking. To allay natural suspicion, 
Herod employed a thousand priests, specially trained for the pur- 
pose, in building the fore-court and the temple proper. For the 
same reason he agreed to take down no part of the old temple until 
the material was prepared to restore it immediately in larger pro- 
portions and in surpassing grandeur. He was willing, at the out- 
set, that his work should appear as one of restoration and enlarge- 
ment. As a matter of fact, the whole building w r as transformed in 
the process. Still he helped to maintain the identity of the old with 
the new. It continued to be called the " second " temple. 

The work began in the eighteenth year of Herod's reign, B.C. 20- 
19. It was not completed until the time of the procurator Albinus, 
a.d. 62-64. When it is said, therefore, in the Gospel of John, 3 
" Forty and six years was this temple in building," it is simply 
meant that so long a time had been already spent upon it, B.C. 19- 
a.d. 28. We are dependent for information concerning the great 
work mostly on Josephus and on a tract of the Talmud which is 
exclusively devoted to the subject. Happily, in this case both may 
be relied on, in respect to their general statements, with great con- 
fidence. In entering upon the undertaking, the site of the old tem- 
ple on Mount Moriah was greatly enlarged by means of immense 
sub-structures. It formed, according to Josephus, a rectangular space 
equivalent to a stadium square, that is, a little more than six hun- 
dred English feet. 4 The Talmud makes the area considerably larger, 
and modern investigations tend to confirm this view. It seems to 
have been longest from north to south. The whole was surrounded 
by a high and massive wall capable of military defence. This wall 
was broken on the west by four gates, and, as it would appear, on 
the south by two gates, and on the east and north respectively by 
one gate. On the northwest corner, and only a little way removed, 
frowned the strong citadel of Antonia. Steps from the court led 

1 Josephus, Anliq. 14. 7 : 1 ; Josephus. Wars of the Jeivs, 1, 88. - Josephus. Wars of the Jews, 
14, 16 : 2. 3 John 2 : 20. * Josephus, Antiq. 15, 11 ; Wars of the Jews, 5, 6 ; Talmud, Traet 

Massecheth Middoth. 



ENHANCE "ANTOMA. 



Worshipper.?, .nit ux. 




f. 



~c V 

COURT of GENTILES J 

Jj \Vorsto])p£rs enter ---"'" 

^ /' A, Tyropoeon Bridge. B, B, Terrace. 

1 / C, C, South side Gates, the second on the right being the 

• / \Tater Gate. 

* / D, D. North Gates. G, Nicanor Gate. 



E, E, Money-Chests. 

F, F, Courts and Chambers. 



S, 15 steps of the Levites. 
J, Steps of Priests. 



A 

Sid 



ROYAL PORCH 



■ t^AX^^ ^Jf^^.Jr.A,,!,,,,,*, 



iPMELG. 



x: 

s; 

k : 

•0' *| 

an 

■Or 

:^:: 

•0' • 

x : 



Herod's Temple : Ground-Plan, with Courts, Gates, Porches, etc. 




Euins of a Synagogue at Kefr-Bir'im, near Kadesh in Galilee. 
(By Permission from Pal. 3Iemoirs.) 



306 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

directly up to it. Paul was once carried as a prisoner up these steps, 
and on the way was allowed to pause and address the excited throngs 
assembled in the court below. 1 

26. Coming within the wall one found himself at once in the outer 
court of the holy place. It was also called the " court of the Gen- 
tiles," because other than Jews were admitted to it. Beyond this, 
however, strangers were warned by notices on suspended tablets that 
on pain of death they should not venture. A tablet of this sort, in 
the Greek language, has been recently unearthed at this spot. It 
was because it was supposed that Paul had transgressed such an 
ordinance that the uproar took place recorded in Acts 21 : 28. This 
court was paved throughout with variegated marble, and surrounded 
with a magnificent colonnade, forming what are called in our English 
Bibles " porches," that is, porticoes. A double row of Corinthian 
pillars, thirty-seven and a half feet high, each formed from a single 
piece of marble, extended around the entire outer wall. They were 
covered by a highly-ornamented roof of polished woods. The 
"porch" on the east side was known as Solomon's porch; that on 
the south as the royal porch. The latter exceeded all the others in 
grandeur. Instead of three rows of marble columns it had four, 
forty pillars standing in each row. The two middle rows were twice 
as high as the other two, and the space between them twice as wide. 
This porch is supposed to have occupied the site of the royal palace 
of Solomon. From its top one could look into the valley of the 
Kedron, four hundred and fifty feet below. It has been supposed b} r 
some that this was the " pinnacle of the temple" referred to in the 
account of our Lord's temptation. 2 

It is easy to understand how such a place as this "court of the 
Gentiles" would be one of common resort for the people of Jerusa- 
lem. It was here, in Solomon's porch, that our Saviour was walking 
when the Jews came about him and asked, "How long dost thou 
hold us in suspense ?" 3 It was here that he overthrew the tables of 
the money-changers. It was in the same place that Peter and John 
healed the lame man who had been laid at the temple gate, and we 
read that, as he held the apostles, " all the people ran together unto 
them in the porch that is called Solomon's, greatly wondering." 4 
Good authorities maintain that, besides apartments for priests and 
Levites, there were also to be found in this court and probably on 
the west side, near the gate that leads to the upper city, the "council 
chamber," in which the Sanhedrin was wont to meet. The temple 

i Acts 21 : 35, 40. 2 Matt. 4:5. s j hn 10 : 24. * Acts 3 : 11. 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 307 

did not lie in the centre of the court, but somewhat nearer to the 
northern and western sides. 

27. Passing inward, now, from the " court of the Gentiles," one 
came first to a low wall which marked its boundary on three sides. 
On this wall, at intervals, were placed the marble tablets before 
mentioned, warning against a further approach those who were not 
Jews. Within this wall rose the terrace on which the temple stood. 
It was about fifteen feet from the first-named wall to that of the 
outer court of the temple proper. Steps led up to the latter on every 
side but the west. There were nine series of them, leading to as 
many gates, the principal one being of course on the east, where was 
the gate called "Beautiful." From the " court of the Gentiles" the 
ascent to this gate, according to Josephus, was by fourteen steps. 
The Talmud gives the number as twelve. The gate itself w T as of 
Corinthian brass, and so massive that it is said to have required the 
united strength of twenty men to open and close it. 

28. Entering the temple precincts from the east, one found him- 
self in the so-called "court of the women." It was so named not 
because of its exclusive use by wornen, but because women were 
not allowed to proceed further except for the purpose of sacrifice. 
Jewish authorities assure us that the place was frequented by all 
classes of worshippers, the women occupying raised galleries on three 
sides of it. There was also a colonnade on three sides of the court. 
At one point of it were found, it is probable, the thirteen trumpet- 
shaped receptacles for contributions ; each one being marked with 
the object for which the money was given. Nine w r ere for legal dues 
and four for free-will offerings. Here we may suppose our Lord saw 
the poor widow cast her two mites into the "treasury." 

Fifteen steps, in the form of a half circle, led up from the " court 
of the women," through another magnificent gate, into the "court 
of Israel." It was on these steps that the Levites were accustomed, 
at the feast of tabernacles, to sing the fifteen psalms of degrees. 
Some have even supposed that the title of these psalms arose from 
this circumstance, but it is not probable. The "court of Israel" 
was really one with that of the priests, the latter being simply a 
little higher than the former, the ascent to it being by two steps. 
The line of division between them was marked by an ornamental 
stone balustrade. According to the Talmud, the "court of Israel " 
was only a narrow strip of about eleven cubits, in front of the " court 
of the priests," and having the width of the temple area. Josephus 1 

1 Josephus, Wars of (he Jews, 5, 5 :6. 



308 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

claims that it extended to this depth around the entire temple. Be- 
yond this boundary priests alone could ordinarily go. In case of 
sacrifice, where the laying on of the hands of the person presenting 
the victim was required, admission to the "court of the priests" was 
of course allowable even to the laity. 

29. The "court of the priests" encompassed the temple on all its 
four sides. Inclusive of that of Israel, it measured one hundred 
eighty-seven cubits from east to west, and one hundred thirty-five 
from north to south. Access to it for priests, as we have seen, was 
not simply through the "court of the women," that is, from the east, 
but also by three gates on the north and south sides respectively. 
Chambers and depositories were built in convenient places along the 
inner walls. On the west side of the space and on still higher 
ground stood the temple. The open space in front of it was occu- 
pied by the huge altar of unhewn stones, not less than forty-eight 
feet square at the base, decreasing as it went upward to thirty-six 
feet, and, inclusive of the horns, fifteen feet high. An inclined 
plane forty-eight feet long by twenty-four broad approached it from 
the south. A careful system of drainage carried from its southwest 
corner the refuse of the altar into the Kedron valley. Twice in the 
year, at the passover and the feast of tabernacles, the stones of the 
altar were whitened. On the north side of the altar were all the 
needed requisites for the sacrifices: rings for binding the victims to 
be slain, eight marble-covered tables for their flesh, and columns 
provided with hooks for suspending it. Nearer the temple, but to- 
ward the south, was a colossal brazen reservoir for water, supported 
on the backs of twelve immense lions. The reservoir was filled 
anew each day by machinery. The aqueduct that brought water to 
the temple had a total length of forty miles. From the "court of 
the priests" to the temple proper there was a flight of twelve steps. 

30. The grandeur of this structure, built entirely of white marble 
and lavishly gilded, must have been indeed imposing. Josephus 
alleges that the stones of its foundations were solid marble blocks 
measuring sixty-seven and a half by nine feet. The figures seem 
extraordinary ; but stones measuring forty feet in length, and weigh- 
ing over one hundred tons, have already been excavated from its 
ruins. The temple was entered through a porch. It w T as broader 
than the main building, extending beyond it thirty feet on each side. 
Altogether, it was one hundred and fifty feet broad and of the same 
height, standing thus like a gigantic wall sixteen and a half feet 
thick in front of the temple. Josephus states its thickness as twenty 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 309 

cubits, possibly confounding it with its excess of width over that of 
the temple on each side. The entrance, which was not provided with 
a door, was sixty feet high and thirty broad. Josephus, who is here 
less trustworthy than the Talmud, makes the figures in this case also 
greater. The gateway and adjoining walls were covered with ele- 
gant carvings and gold leaf. A golden eagle, which Herod origin- 
ally had placed above it, was some years later torn down by an 
infuriated mob of Jews. 

31. Passing through the porch, an ornamental door, covered on 
the inside by a curtain, led into the interior of the temple. The 
measurement of the temple within, including the holy place and the 
oracle, was ninety feet in length by thirty broad, and sixty feet high. 
The oracle occupied, as in the earlier sanctuaries, one third of the 
space. The holy place was furnished with the customary articles: 
the table of shew-bread, the golden candlestick, and the altar of 
incense, the latter being between the other two and the candlestick, 
on the south side. A wooden partition, as some maintain, separated 
one part of the temple from the other. A vail hung over the door 
which admitted to the oracle — the vail that was rent in twain at the 
death of our Lord. It is minutely described in the Talmud, and is 
said to have been so heavy that three hundred priests were required 
to hang it. Other authorities hold that there were tw T o vails sus- 
pended here, a cubit apart, and that there was no other partition. 
In the oracle there was to be found nothing except the large stone 
before mentioned, near which, once in the year, the high priest per- 
formed the rites of the day of atonement. 

32. Like the temple of Solomon, this one had a series of chambers 
built against the outer walls on three sides. They were thirty-eight in 
number and three stories high. Fifteen were on the north and south 
sides, respectively, and eight on the w T est side. One could easily pass 
from one to another of the rooms, as also, by means of winding stair- 
cases, from one story to another, and to the roof. The principal 
entrance to the side chambers was on the northeast corner of the 
temple. Their roof was sixty feet from the ground. Above the 
temple proper, also, there was built a large room having the same 
length and breadth as the main building, and being sixty feet high. 
As the porch was but one hundred and fifty feet high, this addition 
on the top of the temple, reckoning in the thickness of the floors, 
did not fall so far short of it as is commonly supposed. The whole 
temple, excepting the porch, was surmounted by a gabled roof of 
cedar wood armed with golden spikes, and surmounted by a niagnif- 



310 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

icent balustrade. The room over the temple was entered through a 
door that opened upon the roof of the southern tier of side chambers. 

33. The government of the sanctuary was entirely in the hands of 
priests and Levites. At their head stood the " captain of the temple," 
of whom we several times hear in the Acts. 1 His position was re^ 
garded as only second to that of the high priest. Under him were 
others having the same title, but subordinate in authority. 2 The 
duties of the officers of the temple were manifold. Sentries composed 
of Levites were stationed at twenty-one different points, mostly at 
the gates ; and in three places there were guards of priests. The 
temple watch was changed at noon each day. It cannot be wondered 
at, in view of what has been said of this remarkable structure, that 
the disciples of our Lord, as they lingered on one occasion on the 
sides of Mount Olivet and looked down upon it all aglow with the 
rays of the setting sun, desired to call his special attention to it. 3 
Strange as his sad prediction concerning it may have then appeared, 
its essential fulfillment was witnessed by some of those very disciples. 
In a.d. 70 Roman soldiers, under the command of Titus, applied 
the torch that reduced to blackened ruins this last and most splendid 
of the Jewish temples. 

34. The Synagogue. — The synagogue was an institution that 
arose after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile. Once 
started, a natural effort was made to show that it had its basis in 
the earliest history of the people. Two of the Targums actually 
represent Jacob and Rebekah as worshipping in a synagogue. Such 
passages as Isaiah 55 : 6 and Psalm 82 : 1, containing not the remot- 
est reference to such institutions, were, by a rabbinical exegesis, made 
to apply to them. The word synagogue is to be found, it is true, in 
our English Bibles as early as Psalm 74 : 8, "They have burned up 
all the synagogues of God in the land." But it would now be gener- 
ally conceded that, if the reference be to synagogues in the ordinary 
sense of that term, it would be a pretty conclusive proof that this 
psalm arose after the Babylonian exile. There is no trace of the 
institution in the law or the prophets. The rise of it, on the other 
hand, may be readily discovered in the history of the exiles before 
spoken of, especially in connection with the efforts made among 
them to become indoctrinated in the book of the law. 4 

One of the fundamental characteristics of the synagogue was that 
it was a place of instruction. 5 It was instituted and maintained 

1 Acts 4: 1 ; 5 : 24, 26. 2 Luke 22 : 4, 52. 3 Matt. 24 : 1, 2. •» Neh. 8 : S. & Josephas, 
Against Apion, 2, 17. 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 311 

less for purposes of worship, although the simpler forms of worship 
were observed iu it, than to communicate, and keep fresh among all 
classes of the people, a knowledge of God's will as contained in the 
Old Testament. And it was because this end seemed so pre-emi- 
nently important to post-exilian Judaism, and so essential to the 
right exercise, and even the continued existence, of its institutions, 
that it endeavored to find a historical basis for it in earlier practice. 
The synagogue was especially adapted to the Jews of the disper- 
sion. It found a speedy welcome among them. In the time of our 
Lord there were few communities of these Jews in any part of the 
world that did not enjoy a synagogue, to say nothing of the multi- 
tude that were planted in Palestine. We read of them as found 
not only in such small places as Nazareth, 1 but also in Damas- 
cus, 2 in Salamis on the island of Cyprus, 3 in Iconium, 4 in Thessa- 
lonica, 5 in Bercea, 6 Athens, 7 Corinth 8 and Ephesus. 9 In a council 
held at Jerusalem to consider certain points in dispute among early 
Christians, it is said, " For Moses from generations of old hath in 
every city them that preach him, being read in the synagogues everv 
sabbath." 10 

35. The synagogue proper is not to be confounded with another 
somewhat similar institution to which reference is made in Acts 
16 : 13. Places were sometimes extemporized under the open skies 
where meetings for worship might be held. Generally they were to 
be found on the sea-coast or a river's bank, because of the frequent 
lustrations required by the Jewish ceremonial law. Ten men in any 
community, who were so disposed, were a sufficient number to form a 
synagogue. In a large city like Jerusalem or Rome there were many 
of them. 11 They exercised not only religious but also, to some ex- 
tent, civil jurisdiction over their membership. In purely Jewish 
communities, as in some parts of Palestine, the entire civil authority 
was vested in them. A distinction, however, is to be made between 
the elders of a Jewish community, in whose hands were its civil and 
religious administration in general, and those who took part in the 
public services of the synagogues. The latter did not form a per- 
manent class. Any competent member of the community was eli- 
gible to officiate in turn in the exercise of these functions: read pas- 
sages from the Scriptures, offer the usual prayers and benedictions, 
and make remarks upon the selections of Scripture read. Numerous 

i Matt. 13:54. 2 Acts 9 : 20. 3 Acts 13 : 5. 4 Acts 14:1. 5 Acts 17:1. 6 Acts 

17:10. 7 Acts 17: 17. » Acts IS : 4, 17. 9 Acts 13 : 19, 26. w Acts 15 : 21. - n Acts 
6:9. 



312 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

are the instances where we find our Lord taking advantage of this 
privilege, and there is no recorded instance where it is disputed. 1 

There were, it is true, officers of the synagogue ; but their business 
consisted simply in keeping order and seeing to it that the required 
services went on in the usual way. This was especially the case with 
the so-called "ruler of the synagogue," of whom w 7 e read in several 
passages. 2 He attended also, it is likely, to all matters that concerned 
the building and its furnishing. Each ordinary synagogue, it would 
appear, had but one such ruler or president. In Antioch, on the 
other hand, there were several of them. We are told but little con- 
cerning this officer, and know nothing of the class to which he be- 
longed, or on what terms or for what period he held the office. It 
is to be assumed that he was a prominent person in the community, 
and most probably belonged to the body of elders to which the 
management of its affairs in general was committed. Besides the 
"ruler of the synagogue," there were connected with each institu- 
tion of this kind a number of minor officials, answering somewhat to 
deacons in the Christian church. It was their business to keep the 
building clean ; open and close it for worship ; during the services 
to hand the roll of the Scriptures to the person called upon to read 
them; assist in the execution of sentences there pronounced; collect 
and dispense alms, and the like. 3 

36. The word synagogue is of Greek origin, and literally means a 
gathering together. Like the word church the term w T as used to desig- 
nate both an edifice and the people accustomed to meet in it. Ruins 
of ancient synagogues are still to be found in the Holy Land, espe- 
cially in Galilee. They date back to the second or third century 
of our era. It has even been supposed, though the matter is in dis- 
pute, that the ruins of the very building in Capernaum to which 
allusion is made in Luke 7 : 5 have recently been unearthed. In 
selecting a site for a synagogue, the principle seems to have governed, 
to get the highest and most conspicuous point of land in the place. 
Probably the passage in Isaiah 4 that speaks of the house of the Lord 
as being established "in the top of the mountains" had something 
to do with the custom. If such a site were impracticable, the place 
of greatest resort was sought for the building, and a pole was often 
attached to it in order that it might be higher than those in its 
neighborhood. 5 (See illustration, page 305.) 

1 Matt. 4: 23; 9 : 35; 12 : 9; 13 : 54. "- Mark 5 : 22 ; Luke 13 : 14 ; Acts 13 : 15 ; 18 : 8, 17. 

3 Matt. (> : 2 ; 10 : 17 ; 23 : 34 ; Mark 13:9; Luke 21 : 12. « Isa. 2 : 2. & p rov . 1 : 21 ; cf. 

Matt. 6 : 5. 



SANCTUARIES OF ISRAEL. 313 

The most common form of the synagogue on the inside was a rect- 
angular space with single or double colonnades. The amount of 
carving and other embellishment depended on the skill of the builder 
or the pecuniary ability of the community. The space was divided 
much on the same principle and in the same manner as that of the 
tabernacle and temple. The part of the building nearest the door cor- 
responded to the "court of the women," the separation of the women 
being observed in the worship of the synagogue as in that of the 
temple, the rabbis basing the practice on Zechariah 12 : 11-14. The 
inner and higher portion, which began near the centre, represented 
the sanctuary proper, and contained the so-called ark with the rolls 
of Scripture. It was not absolutely essential that worship in order 
to be legitimate should be conducted in a building specially set 
apart for the purpose. In cases of necessity rooms in private houses 
were used. In harmony with this practice was that of the early 
Christians in their worship. 1 

Synagogues were so constructed that on entering them the wor- 
shipper faced toward Jerusalem. In the front and centre of the 
elevated platform stood the reading-desk, where the Scriptures were 
read and addresses delivered. 2 The ark or chest containing the rolls 
was near the posterior wall. Before it was drawn a vail answering 
to that of the holy of holies, and above it was suspended a lighted 
lamp, which was never allowed to go out. A candlestick with eight 
branches stood at one side, that was lighted only at the feast of ded- 
ication. While the congregation generally sat, or stood, facing the 
ark, the more distinguished members of the community were accom- 
modated with seats which faced the congregation. These were con- 
sidered the " chief seats of the synagogues," and were coveted by 
those who sought glory of men. 3 Possibly the same custom was car- 
ried over, in some degree, into the Christian church, and it may be 
this which we find so forcibly rebuked in the epistle of James. 4 

37. Every Sabbath day the Jews were accustomed to assemble in 
their synagogues for prayer and the reading of the Scriptures. The 
service of song was unknown to them. The public services were in- 
troduced by two benedictions recited by all. A sort of creed fol- 
lowed, based on several passages from the Pentateuch. 5 Then came 
another benediction if it were a morning service, two of them if it 
were an evening service, the last being a form of evening prayer. 
Next followed a more formal prayer made up, at least in part, of the 

i Acts 2: 46; 5:42. 2 Neb. 8 : 4. 3 Matt. 23 : 6. « James 2 : 2, 3. 5 Num. 15:37-41 ; 
Deut. 6:4-9; 11:13-21. 



314 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

eighteen (now nineteen) so-called " eulogies," still extant in the Tal- 
mud. It was offered just in front of the ark, as the former part of 
the service had been conducted at the reading-desk. The leader 
was some person selected from the congregation for the purpose, and 
he prayed standing. The congregation also stood, although iu the 
temple they were accustomed to prostrate themselves, and at close 
of the several prayers responded with an " amen." 1 

The same person who conducted the devotional part of the services 
led also in the reading of the law. Others, to the number of at 
least seven, assisted him in it. The reading was begun and closed 
with a benediction. In the earlier times the entire Pentateuch was 
so divided into sections that the whole of it could be read through 
in three, or, as others say, three and a half, years. At present it is 
divided into fifty-four sections, and, allowance being made for inter- 
calary months, the whole is read in a single year. The reading of a 
section from the law was followed by that of one from the prophets. 2 
Under the head of prophets, the historical books of Joshua, Judges, 
Samuel and Kings were included. The prophetical portions might 
be read by a single person. As the reading was in Hebrew, which 
had already become a dead language two centuries before Christ, an 
interpreter stood by to interpret the law verse by verse. The proph- 
ets, on the other hand, might be interpreted three verses at a time. 

The reading of the prophets was, or might be, followed by an ad- 
dress based on the passages read. It could be made by any men- 
tally-competent person present. In the light of these facts new in- 
terest is given to the record of our Lord's words in the synagogue 
at Nazareth when " he began to say unto them, To-day hath this 
scripture been fulfilled in your ears. And all bare him witness, and 
wondered at the words of grace which proceeded out of his mouth." 3 
The reading was done standing. The address was made in a sitting 
posture. The right of private members of the synagogue thus to 
speak, conceded in the time of our Lord, ceased in the second cen- 
tury, when it was limited to the eldership. The order of service just 
given was that for the Sabbath ; a simpler form was in use for week 
days (Mondays and Thursdays), when also regular assemblies for 
worship were held. A portion only of the law was read on these 
occasions, and the reading might be participated in by three persons 
instead of seven. Similar gatherings, moreover, took place on the 
great festival days, when passages of Scripture specially selected 
for the purpose were read. 

l Matt. 6:5; Mark 1 1 : 25 ; Luke 18 : 11. 2 Acts 13 : 15. 3 Luke 4 : 21, 22. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



THE TRIESTHOOD. 



1. If Israel had been fitted for the privilege, the whole nation, 
instead of a single tribe, might have enjoyed the prerogatives of 
the priesthood. To this effect were the words addressed to Moses on 
Mount Sinai just before the giving of the law : " Thus shalt thou 
say to the house of Jacob, and tell the children of Israel; Ye have 
seen what I did unto the Egyptians, and how I bare you on eagles' 
wings, and brought you unto myself. Now therefore, if ye will obey 
my voice indeed, and keep my covenant, then ye shall be a peculiar 
treasure unto me from among all peoples : for all the earth is mine : 
and ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation." 1 
This may be said to have been the ideal toward which the divine 
institutions in the Mosaic period pointed. And even in the lowest 
stages of moral corruption to which it sunk, Israel was never per- 
mitted to lose sight of its high destination. For this purpose it w 7 as 
that through circumcision every male Israelite bore in his flesh the 
sign of his consecration ; and through another divine appointment 
carried on his ordinary dress a badge to indicate that he belonged 
wholly to God. 2 

The people of Israel came far short, it is true, of reaching the 
mark of their high calling. Still, it was of unspeakable value during 
the time of preparation, especially as an educating influence, that 
there should be a standard of this sort. It was needful to show that 
the law could make nothing perfect ; that it was necessary to bring 
in thereupon "a better hope." The apostle Peter, addressing his 
Christian brethren, tells them that they have attained that which 
was ever the goal of the chosen people : " But ye are an elect race, a 
royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for God's own possession." 3 

2. Hence the setting apart to divine service, in the priesthood, of 
one tribe of Israel in place of twelve was for the time, so to speak, 
a needful expedient. It was the best means of finally attaining that 
w T hich was at present unattainable. A direct historical occasion for 
such consecration was offered during the exodus from Egypt. In 
the last fearful plague which came upon the Egyptians, when the 

1 Ex. 19 : 3-6. 2 Num. 15 : 37-40 ; Deut. 22 : 12. si p e t. 2 : 9. 

315 



316 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

firstborn of man and beast were slain, Israel, as usual, had escaped. 
For this act of mercy God justly claimed recognition. He said to 
Moses : " Sanctify unto me all the firstborn, whatsoever openeth the 
womb among the children of Israel, both of man and of beast : it 
is mine." l Subsequently it was enjoined that in place of the first- 
born of all the tribes, the whole tribe of Levi, with its cattle, should 
be given up to Jehovah for special service. As, however, they did 
not number as many as the firstborn of all the tribes, it was required 
that for the remaining two hundred and seventy-three, five shekels 
apiece should be paid to the priests, that is, to the sanctuary. Ever 
afterwards this sum continued to be the price paid for the redemp- 
tion of the firstborn of man or beast. 2 

Within the tribe of Levi which had thus been divinely set apart 
for the service of the sanctuary a marked distinction was at once 
made. A part of it, Aaron and his sons, was designated for priests, 
the rest to be their attendants and ministers. It was a divine ar- 
rangement throughout. " No man," says the epistle to the Hebrews, 
" taketh the honor unto himself, but when he is called of God, even 
as was Aaron." 3 The special duties of the Levites, in distinction 
from the priests, are laid down in the following passages : Numbers 
3:6-10; 18:2-6. During the sojourn in the wilderness, for ex- 
ample, it fell to them, when required, to take down and put up the 
tabernacle ; to transport it on their shoulders, or in wagons provided 
for the purpose, and, when at rest, to take care of it; provide the 
shew-bread, the means for the ordinary offerings ; and perform other 
similar services that the priests might demand of them as their 
assistants. 

3. The ceremony of consecration for the Levites was much simpler 
than that for the priests.* The " water of expiation " was first 
sprinkled upon them. Their clothing Avas then washed and their 
persons bathed and shaved. Following this, the congregation of 
Israel, through their representative, laid its hands upon their head.-, 
and Aaron offered them " for a wave offering before the Lord ;" that 
is, led them toward the altar and back again. The ceremony was 
concluded with an offering of consecration consisting of two young 
bullocks, the one being for a sin offering and the other for a burnt 
offering. 

4. Prerequisites for the Priesthood. — Aaron, who was des- 
ignated for the high-priesthood, was an elder brother of Moses. 5 

1 Ex. 13:2. 2 Num. 3:11-51; 8:14-18; cf. Ex. 32:26. 3 Heb. 5:4. * Num. 8:6-21. 
* Ex. 28 : 1. 



THE PRIESTHOOD. 317 

His sods, who were appointed to the office with him, along with their 
male descendants, were Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar. Of 
these sons the first two were early put to death for the crime of offer- 
ing false fire before the Lord. 1 Of the remaining two, Eleazar suc- 
ceeded to the priesthood on the death of his father. 2 After him 
came Phinehas his son. 3 At a later period, for some reason unre- 
vealed, we find Eli, a descendant of Ithamar, holding the position. 4 
At the time of Solomon, during the high-priesthood of Zadok, the 
succession again reverted to the line of Eleazar. 5 

Descent from Aaron gave only a hereditary right to the office of 
priest. Certain other qualifications were also essential. Nothing is 
said in the Bible concerning the age of a candidate ; but it is not 
unlikely that the law for the Levites was here, too, considered bind- 
ing which placed the age of service at twenty-five or thirty years. 6 
It was probably fixed for the Levites at thirty, during the more try- 
ing period of the sojourn in the wilderness. Tradition, however, 
fixes the legal age for entering upon the duties of the priesthood at 
thirty. The law for the priesthood, moreover, required that one 
should be free from any serious physical defect, like blindness, lame- 
ness and others fully detailed in Leviticus 21 : 17-23. Physically- 
incapable priests were provided for out of the common fund, but 
might not officiate at the altar. The Talmud enumerates no less 
than one hundred and forty-two blemishes which disqualified from 
the priesthood. While officiating at the sanctuary priests were not 
allowed to indulge in wine or strong drink. Except in the case of 
near relatives, they were not permitted to defile themselves by touch- 
ing a dead body or even to disfigure themselves in their mourning. 
Even the rending of the garments and the neglect of any public 
duty was prohibited to them on such occasions. 7 It was further re- 
quired of a high priest that he should only marry a virgin of Israel, 
and, in later times, that he himself should not have had for a mother 
one who had been a captive. 8 

5. Consecration. — All priests, at least in the first instance, were 
solemnly set apart to their office by a special ceremonial. The de- 
tails of it are given in Exodus 29 : 1-44 ; Leviticus 8 : 1-36 ; cf. 
Exodus 40 : 12-1 5. It took place at the door of the tent of meeting, 
in the presence of the entire congregation. The bodies of the can- 
didates were first bathed with water and invested with the holy gar- 

i Lev. 10:2. 2 Num. 20:26. 3 Num. 25 : 11-13; Judg. 20 : 28. * 1 Sam. 14:3; cf. 1 

Sam. 2:9. 6 1 Kings 2 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 24 : 3. 6 Num. 4: 3; 8:24, 25. t Lev. 21 : 1-6, 

10-15. 8 Josephus, Antiq. 3, 12 : 2. 



318 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

ments. Next followed the anointing with a composition specially- 
prepared for the occasion and used nowhere else. It was made up 
of myrrh, cinnamon, cassia and calamus mingled with the purest 
olive oil. This ointment was poured on the head. The ceremony 
of anointing was followed by sacrifices in which it was not Aaron 
and his sons, but Moses, who officiated. They consisted of all the 
three kinds recognized in the law : the sin offering, the burnt offer- 
ing and the peace offering. Along with the last a peculiar ceremony 
took place. When Moses had slain the victim, he took of its blood, 
" and put it upon the tip of Aaron's right ear, and upon the thumb 
of his right hand, and upon the great toe of his right foot." The 
same was also done in the case of Aaron's two sons. It was a most 
impressive symbol of the completeness of the consecration required 
of them. The ceremonies of the first day were concluded by Moses 
sprinkling the blood of this victim, commingled with the anointing 
oil, on the garments of Aaron and his sons. 

It was held by the rabbins that the ordinary priest at his first 
consecration was simply touched on the forehead with the anointing 
oil. The same opinion has been adopted by not a few modern critics 
and commentators ; some, however, holding that the only anointing 
they had was the sprinkling with oil and with the blood of the 
sacrifice offered at the close of the first day. But it is clear from 
numerous passages that the ordinary priest was also regularly 
anointed at this time. 1 It might be inferred, too, from the fact that 
he was treated in the same way as the high priest in the subsequent 
use of the oil. 2 The fact that the high priest alone was called the 
"anointed priest" had its sufficient basis in the circumstance that, 
subsequent to the first anointing, it was repeated only for him and 
not for the ordinary priest. There is no evidence that in the period 
of the exile or afterwards the high priest himself was anointed. 

Seven entire days were devoted to the services of consecrating 
Aaron and his sons to the priesthood. Those of the first day have 
been already described. On the second and each of the five others 
the same sacrifices were offered. 3 During the whole period Aaron 
and his sons were obliged to remain in their places before the tent 
of meeting. The rabbinical tradition is that, in addition to the sac- 
rifices, the candidates were also each day anointed. The Scriptures 
do not affirm this ; but it is certain that the altar was daily anointed. 4 
On the eighth day, the ceremonies of consecration being over, the 

i Ex. 28 : 41 ; 30 : 30 ; 40 : 15 ; Lev. 7 : 36 ; 10 : 7 ; Num. 3:3. 2 j jCV< U : 18. s Ex. 29 : 35 ; 
Lav. 8 : 33. * Ex. 29 : 30. 



THE PRIESTHOOD. 319 

newly-anointed priests entered upon their service by first offering a 
sin and a burnt offering for themselves ; and the same, together with 
a peace and meal offering, for the people. 1 

6. Duties of the Priests. — As a matter of course, the duties 
of the priests were mostly in connection with the tabernacle and 
temple, No others were competent to offer sacrifices at the altar. 
It was specifically forbidden to the Levite to " come nigh unto the 
vessels of the sanctuary and unto the altar [that is, in the way of 
public service], that they die not." It was the province of the priests 
to mediate between God and his people, receiving from the latter's 
hands the offerings they brought, and blessing them in the name of 
the Lord. 2 It was their duty to offer incense, morning and evening, 
in the holy place ; to cleanse the golden candlestick and provide it 
with oil; and, each Sabbath, to remove the shew-bread from the 
table and put fresh bread in its place. It was incumbent on them, 
too, to keep the interior of the sanctuary clean ; furnish a guard at 
its entrance ; and during the sojourn in the wilderness, on breaking 
camp, to wrap up the sacred utensils in such a form that they might 
be carried by the Levites. 3 It was for them to see that a fire was 
kept continually burning on the altar of burnt offering, and that it 
was freed from ashes and other refuse. 4 Here also, morning and 
evening, they offered the burnt offering with its meal offering for the 
congregation ; and on the occasions of the various feasts, such other 
sacrifices as were specially appointed for them. 

For such offices as these the priesthood was made wholly respon- 
sible. Nor was this all. To them w 7 as intrusted the oversight of 
the Levites; 5 the duty of determining the worthiness or unworth- 
iness of animals offered for sacrifices ; as well as the value of objects 
presented to be redeemed for the uses of the sanctuary. 6 Every 
leper in Israel came to the priests for examination and instructions. 7 
It was they who prescribed the services required in all cases of cer- 
emonial purification taking place at the sanctuary, as in discharging 
from vows, and for wives suspected of unfaithfulness. They held 
also the office of teachers, as it respected all the statutes that the 
Lord had given " by the hand of Moses." The rolls of the law 
were expressly put in their charge by the lawgiver. 8 They had a 
duty to do, moreover, as judges. All controversies were peremp- 
torily settled by their verdict. " The man that doeth presumptu- 

i Lev. 9 : 1-5. 2 Le V . 9 . 22 ; Num. 6 : 22-27 ; 18 : 3. » Num. 3 : 38 ; 4 : 5-16 ; 2 Kings 12 : 9 ; 
25:18; 2 Chron. 29:16. * Lev. 6 : 8-13. . 5 Ex. 38 : 21 ; Num. 4 : 28, 33; 7 : 8. 6 Lev. 27. 
1 Deut. 24 : 8. • Deut. 31 : 9. 



320 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



ously" — so runs the law — "in not hearkening unto the priest that 
standeth to minister there before the Lord thy God, or unto the 
judge, even that man shall die." 1 

7. To the high priest the whole priestly service stood open. He 
might do as little or as much of it as he chose. It was customary 
for him to leave all of it to others, except on the Sabbath and other 
festival days. There were for him, however, special obligations. 
Besides the oversight of the sanctuary and its worship, 2 no one but 
he, as we have already seen, could officiate on the day of atonement. 3 
And it was his duty, unless he specifically delegated it to others, to 
present, morning and evening, the daily meal offering appointed on 
the occasion of the installation of Aaron and his sons. 4 Josephus 
informs us that this was done by him " of his own charges." 5 In 
later times, at least, the high priest had a dwelling in the temple be- 
sides one in the city of Jerusalem. During the day he was usually 
to be found in the former. 

8. Classes of Priests and Levites. — From the books of 

Chronicles we learn that David divided 
the priesthood into twenty-four classes, 
each class representing a family. 6 Their 
respective heads formed a titled order. 
Sixteen of the families were from the 
line of Eleazar and eight from that of 
Ithamar. The order in which they per- 
formed their duties was determined by 
lot. This arrangement, inaugurated by 
David, was adopted also by his suc- 
cessors. Each of the classes remained 
on duty at the temple one week, that 
is, from one Sabbath to the next. 7 At 
the same time that David introduced 
this system for the priests, he likewise 
divided the Levites into twenty-four 
classes. 8 In addition to the duties in- 
cumbent on them before, others were imposed by him and the kings 
that followed him. They acted, for example, as singers and musicians ; 
as porters ; as trustees of sacred funds and as secretaries. 9 But by 
far the greater number still remained simple assistants of the priests. 




A Levite. 



iDeut. 17:12; 19:17; 20:2-4. 8 2 Kings 12:7; 22:4. 3 Lev. 4: 5; 16: 16. * Lev. 

6 : 20. 5 Josephus, Antiq. 3, 10 : 7. ° 1 Chron. 8 : 14 ; 23 : 18 ; 24 : 1-18 ; 31 : 2 ; 35 : 4. 

i 2 Chron. 23 : 4. 8 1 Chron. 23 : 4, 28. 9 1 Chron. 15 : 23 ; 25 : 6 ; Neh. 12 : 44. 



THE PRIESTHOOD. 321 

The duties of the Levites in the temple of Herod seem to have been 
much the same as in that of Solomon and of Zerubbabel. They had 
in charge the sacred vestments and utensils ; the various depositories 
and their contents ; the provisions for the meal and incense offer- 
ings ; and they acted also as the temple police under the direction 
of the priests. Other books of the Old Testament, while not directly 
supporting the statements derived from Chronicles respecting these 
matters, do so at least by implication. 1 

Of the priests who returned from the exile only four of the twenty- 
four classes were represented ; and there was a still smaller propor- 
tion of Levites. 2 In order to restore the original classification of 
priests, these four, according to the Talmud, drew lots for the rest, 
and those chosen assumed the names originally borne by the respect- 
ive classes. It is certain that they were early restored ; though at 
first there were but twenty-two of them. 3 As it concerns the man- 
ner of the restoration, it seems quite likely that it was gradually 
brought about, possibly by the later return or discovery of other 
priests belonging to these classes, or by the selection, in some way 
unknown to us, of representative men in their places. It is gener- 
ally assumed that the twenty-four classes that existed in the time of 
our Lord still bore the ancient names. It can be actually affirmed, 
however, only that those mentioned in the later times do bear the 
names given to them in the period of the exile/ Each of the twenty- 
four courses was made up of a certain number of families, and the 
services of the week were divided among them according to their 
number. If there were more families in a course than there were 
days in the week, they were associated together. On the Sabbath 
the whole course was expected to be present. At the national festi- 
vals priests of any course might join in ministering at the altar ; and 
at the feast of tabernacles all the courses were expected to hold them- 
selves in readiness for service. While one part of a course was on 
duty at the temple, the rest of it was put under certain restrictions 
as being liable to be called upon to share in it. 

9. Dress of the Priests. — When engaged in service the priests, 
including the high priest, wore an official costume. This was not 
required of Levites. The costume of the ordinary priest consisted 
of four specified articles : a tunic, trousers, a girdle and a turban. 6 
The material and color of these articles are particularly named. 

i 2 Kings 11:18; 12:2; 19:2; 22:4; 25:18; Tsa. 37: 2; Jer. 19:1; 20:1; 29:26; 52:24. 
2 Ezra 2 : 36-39. 3 jjeh. 12 : 1-7. * i Mace. 2:1; Luke 1:5. & Ex. 28 : 40 ; cf. 29 : 8 ; 39 2 
27 ; Lev. 8 : 13. 
21 



322 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



The material was byssus (shesK), by which cotton may have been 
meant ; or, if not cotton, a fine quality of linen. 1 Why this was 
enjoined may be inferred from the fact that for a warm climate this 
materia], as compared with goods made from wool, would be both 

suggestive of cleanliness and helpful 
to it. The color was white ; doubt- 
less as symbolical of the personal 
purity demanded of one who offici- 
ated as priest. 2 The tunic was of 
woven work and was made from one 
piece. According to Josephus, who, 
however, probably only represents 
the customs of his own times, it 
fitted close to the body, reached to 
the feet and had sleeves ; while the 
opening for the neck was provided 
with cords, by which it might be 
made large or small at pleasure. 3 
The trousers seem- to have been of 
the same material as the tunic, but 
covered only the middle part of the 
body, reaching from the loins to the 
thighs, "to cover the flesh of their 
nakedness" when they went into 
the tent of meeting, or came near 
the altar "to minister in the holy 
place." 4 

Of the material and form of the 
priest's girdle nothing appears to 
be said in the Bible. Josephus, probably basing his opinion on 
Exodus 39 : 29, affirms that the material was of byssus, and that it 
was embroidered with blue, purple and scarlet, the three colors of 
the curtains of the tabernacle. 5 He may have correctly stated what 
was the custom of his own day, and this would most likely have 
been in general harmony with tradition. In the meantime the text 
in Exodus seems to refer, though, it must be confessed, not with 
absolute clearness, to the girdle of the high priest only. AVe are 
accordingly left to infer that that of the ordinary priest was of the 
same stuff and color as that of the rest of his costume. His official 




Dress of the Priest. 



i Ex. 39 : 28 ; cf. 28 : 42 (in the Hebrew). 
28 : 42, 43. 6 Josephus, Antiq. 3, 7 : 2. 



2 Ezi'k. 44 ; 17. 3 Josephus, Antiq. 3, 7:2. < Ex. 



THE PRIESTHOOD. 323 

dress was completed by the turban. It also was of byssus, and, if 
we may judge from the Hebrew word used, was of the form of the 
inverted calyx of a flower. A noun from the same root means a 
hill. The turban was bound upon the head. Josephus makes no 
special distinction between the turban of the ordinary priest and the 
high priest's mitre, except that the latter, according to him, had over 
it another one of a blue color and embroidered. 1 This cannot well 
have been the practice in the earliest times. Jewish authorities in- 
form us that when the clothing of the ordinary priest became soiled 
it was not washed for further use, but torn up and made into wicks 
for the lamps of the temple. 

10. That the clothing of the priests did not remain the same in 
all periods of Israelitish history, conforming in this respect to the 
laws given on the subject in the Pentateuch, has been inferred from 
1 Samuel 22 : 18. 2 It is there represented that the priests in the 
tabernacle at Nob wore linen ephods, and this has been supposed to 
be the very article of dress which in the Pentateuch is accorded 
solely to the high priest. The ephod of the high priest, however, 
is never said, in the original Hebrew, to have been of linen, but of 
"fine linen" (byssus), an entirely different article. Besides, the 
high priest's garment, as we shall hereafter see, was embroidered. 
We have no warrant for assuming, moreover, that the priests of 
Nob, who, on his summons, appeared before Saul at Gibeah, came in 
their official dress. We should expect the contrary. The linen 
ephods which they wore may have been a sort of undress uniform, 
which would have been eminently suitable for them in view of their 
ordinary apparel. In any case this passage in Samuel does not state 
that the linen ephod was an official costume of the priests, or that 
it formed any part of it. The priesthood went barefoot during the 
discharge of their duties in the sanctuary ; at least sandals are 
never mentioned in such a connection, and their use would have 
been out of harmony with Oriental ideas of propriety. 

11. Dress of the High Priest. — The official dress of the high 
priest differed in several important respects from that of the priest. 
The close-fitting tunic w T ith sleeves and the short trousers w T ere the 
same. The girdle, on the other hand, as we have reason to suppose, 
was originally the one described in Exodus 28 : 39 ; 39 : 29 ; al- 
though, as we have seen, Josephus makes this also the girdie of the 
ordinary priest. On a ground-work of white byssus were embroid- 
ered the other three colors of the sanctuary, blue, purple and scarlet. 

i Josephus, Anliq. 3, 7 : 3 ; cf. Ex. 39 : 8. 2 cf. 1 Sam. 2 : 18. 



324 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



The covering for his head, too, is called in our text by a name dif- 
ferent from that applied to the turban of the priest. It seems to 
have been made of a long strip of byssus or linen, which was wound 
around upon itself until it took the shape of a very high conical 

figure. It was doubtless meant 
to be an essential mark of dig- 
nity. 1 Besides these four arti- 
cles of dress which the high 
priest had in common with the 
rest, there were four others in 
which he was peculiar. 2 

12. Over the close-fitting 
tunic of byssus he wore, first, 
what is known as the " robe of 
the ephod," since it was never 
worn without the ephod. It 
also was of byssus, but blue 
in color, without sleeves, and 
reaching, apparently, only to 
the knees. It had an opening, 
provided with a strongly-pro- 
tected border, "a binding of 
woven work round about," 
through which the head was 
thrust. The lower edge was 
highly ornamented. Alternat- 
ing with figures of pomegran- 
ates, embroidered in blue, pur- 
ple and scarlet, there were 
little golden bells, as the rab- 
bins affirm, seventy-two in number. The object of these bells, ac- 
cording to the Scriptures, was that their sound might be heard when 
the high priest went into and came out from the holy place before 
the Lord, that is, the inner sanctuary, on the day of atonement. 
Some have supposed that the bells, like those used at the mass among 
Roman Catholics, were to call the attention of the people to the dif- 
ferent stages of the ceremony. It seems more probable that they 
were intended to act as a restraint upon the high priest, and to be a 
reminder to the people, and as it were to Jehovah himself, that the 
appointed mediator was there to mediate for Israel. 3 

1 Ezek. 21 : 26 ; Zech. 3:5. 2 Ex. 28 : 1-43 ; 39 : 1-31. 3 Eeclus. 45 : 9. 




Diess of the High Priest. 



THE PRIESTHOOD. 325 

13. The second peculiar feature in the high priest's dress was the 
ephod. Its material was byssus. Into this were wrought threads 
of gold, blue, purple and scarlet, " the work of the cunning work- 
man." Eespecting its form there has been considerable dispute, as 
the directions given in Exodus are at present not very clear. Fol- 
lowing rabbinical precedent, the general opinion has been that it 
consisted of seven principal parts. There were, first, two pieces to 
cover the front and back of the body, reaching from the shoulders 
to the middle of the thighs. Then there were two shoulder-strips, 
by means of which the front and back portions were connected above. 
On each of these two strips there was placed an onyx stone (margin 
of the Revised Version, " beryl") set in gold. The two together had 
engraved on them the names of all the tribes of Israel. Finally, 
there was a girdle, " the cunningly woven band," attached to it, and 
of the same material and workmanship as the ephod, by whose means 
the latter was held firmly to the body. Another representation of 
the matter is regarded as more satisfactory by some critics. They 
would make the two shoulder-pieces considerably wider, and suppose 
that when they were joined together in front they had the appear- 
ance of a narrow cape. The lower part of the ephod, on the other 
hand, according to them, was a sort of waistcoat or jacket, without 
sleeves, reaching from below the arms to the waist, and firmly bound 
about the body by the band already described. Between the shoul- 
der-pieces or cape and the jacket, the blue robe would thus be some- 
what visible. Josephus gives still another description, but it cannot 
be harmonized with the text of the Pentateuch. 

14. The breastplate of the high priest, the third peculiar article 
of his costume, is thus described in the Bible: "And thou shalt 
make a breastplate of judgment, the work of the cunning work- 
man ; like the work of the ephod thou shalt make it ; of gold, of 
blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen [byssus], shalt 
thou make it. Foursquare it shall be and double ; a span shall be 
the length thereof, and a span the breadth thereof." On the breast- 
plate thus made there were placed, in golden setting, four rows of 
precious stones, three in each row, and on the stones were engraved 
the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. In what order the stones 
were placed it is not stated. It was further provided, in its two 
upper corners, with two gold rings, by means of which it was at- 
tached by golden chains (" wreathen work"), passing across the 
breast, to the setting of the precious stones in the shoulder-pieces. 
To bind it still more closely to the ephod there were two other gold 




326 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

rings attached to its two lower inside corners, through which passed 
strips of blue lace to two rings placed in the lower front edge of the 
shoulder-pieces underneath. In this way Aaron was to " bear the 
names of the children of Israel in the breastplate of judgment upon 
his heart," when he went into the holy place, " for a memorial before 
the Lord continually." l 

15. Urim and Thummim. — Again, there were to be put in, or 
assigned to, the breastplate of judgment the Urim and Thummim, 

literally, " the Lights and the Perfections," 
that they might be upon Aaron's heart 
when he went before the Lord, and that 
Aaron might ever " bear the judgment of 
the children of Israel upon his heart be- 
fore the Lord." In some way to us un- 
known divine decisions respecting Israel 
Egyptian Light and Truth. were reacnec l by means of the Urim and 
Thummim. In the history of the people up to the time of Solomon, 
when both name and function disappear, we find them used in this 
way. 2 But concerning what they were and how they were used no one 
has been able to give a satisfactory answer. Josephus supposed that 
they were not distinct objects, but were identical with the stones of 
the breastplate, which in some supernatural manner indicated the will 
of God. Philo conjectured that they were two symbolical images 
of light and truth which had been worked into the material of the 
breastplate. Others have thought that they were simply some pro- 
vision, possibly a couple of precious stones, for casting lots, through 
which a divine decision was given. It is at least true that in cer- 
tain instances where we might suppose that the Urim and Thummim 
would be consulted, we find what appears to be the use of the lot. 3 
And if it were permitted to trust the version of the Septuagint, in 
1 Samuel 14 : 41. which reproduces, somewhat freely it would ap- 
pear, the original of an obviously corrupt passage, a direct support 
would be found for the theory. It reads as follows: "And Saul 
said, O Lord God of Israel, wherefore is it that thou hast not an- 
swered thy servant to-day ? If the wrong is in me, or in my son 
Jonathan, O Lord God of Israel, show light [the Urim], [but if, on 
the other hand, it be] in thy people Israel, then show right [the 
Thummim]." 

16. The fourth peculiar article belonging to the high priest's cos- 

i Ex. 28 : 29. 2 Num. 27 : 21 ; Judg. 1 : 1, 2 ; 20 : 18, 23 ; 1 Sam. 23 : 2, 1, 6, 9-12. 3 1 Sam . 
10:19-22; 14:37-42. 



THE PRIESTHOOD. 327 

tume was the golden plate worn on the front of the mitre and in- 
scribed " Holy to the Lord." 1 It was of pure gold and attached to 
a strip of blue lace just above the forehead. The object of it is said 
to be to show that the high priest is to " bear the iniquity of the 
holy things," that is, to be held responsible if they are not holy, and 
to make the needful atonement by which they shall be rendered ac- 
ceptable, when offered by the people. It was a conspicuous object 
and one of the most suggestive in the whole attire of the chief priest. 
It has been argued by some that, like a crown, it symbolized the 
high position, the almost royal dignity, of this official. But in that 
case it would probably have been of a different form ; at least, dif- 
ferently inscribed. It was in another way, according to the book of 
Zechariah, that this thought was symbolized by the high priest 
Joshua, namely, by actual crowns of gold and silver. 2 

17. In the time of the Maccabees, however, a crown along with a 
purple robe was actually presented to the high priest Jonathan, by 
Alexander Epiphanes, as insignia of office; 3 and Josephus, in de- 
scribing the costume of the chief priest in his day, speaks of a 
polished golden crown, of three rows, one above another, out of 
which there arose a cup of gold. 4 It is probable that the novelty 
first arose with the Maccabaean Jonathan. It does not appear that 
even in Josephus's time the crown displaced the simple inscribed 
plate of earlier days. It has already been stated that the high priest 
had another costume, wholly white, which he wore while offering the 
expiatory sacrifices on the day of atonement. In distinction from 
this and from the dress of the ordinary priest, the other was spoken 
of as " the finely wrought garments," and in the Talmud as " the 
golden clothing." 5 The articles were costly and regarded with no 
little reverence. Until the reign of Hyrcanus, B.C. 135-105, when 
not in use they were kept in the temple ; after this, until the time 
of Herod the Great, in the adjacent citadel of Antonia, whence 
they were allowed to be taken on the occasions of the three great 
pilgrimage festivals and on the day of atonement. After a.d. 36 
they were again put wholly within the custody of the priesthood. 
One high priest received them from another, and, as we have seen, 
during the whole period of the existeuce of the second temple, in- 
vestiture rather than anointing was the ceremony indicating the 
assumption of office. 

18. A fact that should not be overlooked is that the historical 

» Ex. 28 : 36 ; 39 : 30 ; Lev. 8:9. 2 Zech. 6 : 11. *1 Mace. 10 : 20. * Josephus, Antiq. 3, 
7:6. &Ex. 31:10; 35:19; 39:1,41. 



328 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

books of the Bible mention a secondary high priest, a personage 
quite unknown to the Pentateuch. He is called both " second priest" 
and "ruler." 1 In the Talmud he was known as the "sagan" 
(sagen, segan), and it was made his duty to officiate when, for any 
reason, the high priest was incapable. He acted, in general, as as- 
sistant to the high priest, and, next to him, exercised control over 
the remaining priests. 

19. Maintenance of the Priests and Levites. — The physical 
maintenance of the numerous priests and Levites was at all times a 
matter of great importance. It was by no means left wholly to the 
generosity of their brethren of the other eleven tribes, but express 
provision was made for it in numerous laws. The principle on which 
such support was required was not simply that the priests and Le- 
vites were performing services in their behalf as their appointed 
representatives. It was a still higher and more fundamental obli- 
gation. All owed tribute from their substance to God. That tribute 
God relinquished in favor of the tribe of Levi, including Aaron and 
his sons, to the end that they might devote themselves wholly and 
untrammelled to the service of their brethren at the sanctuary. 
Again and again this fact is repeated and impressed upon the chil- 
dren of Israel, and rehearsed, for their encouragement, to the Levites 
themselves. On this account the latter were not to share with their 
brethren in the inheritance of the land of Canaan. A ti.he, that 
is, tenth, of their income was to be sacredly set apart by all the re- 
maining Israelites for their maintenance. 2 This was their principal 
means of support. Outside of it they had, as will be hereafter noted, 
places to dwell in assigned them, and participated to the amount of 
one one hundred and fiftieth part in the spoils of Avar. 

From their tithe the Levites were required to give, in turn, a tithe 
to the priests. 3 It was to be reckoned to them " as though it were 
the corn of the threshing-floor, and as the fullness of the wine-press." 
They were to have the privilege, in other words, to be, in so far, 
themselves almoners of the bounty of God. The tithe they received 
from their brethren consisted of one tenth part of all the products 
of the soil, of fruit trees, and of cattle. In the case of land products, 
if a man chose to pay in money rather than in kind, he could do so 
by adding one fifth the money value of the tithe. 4 The tithe of flocks 
and herds was not redeemable. Every tenth one, good or bad, passing 
under the rod, was the Lord's. If any attempt were made to ex- 

i 2 Kings 25 : 18 ; 2 Chron, 31 : 13; Neh. 11:11 j Jer. 52:24. 2 Num. 18:20,21: of. Dent. 

10 : 9 ; 18 : 1, 2 ; Ezek. 44 : 28. 3 Num. 18 : 26-32. 4 Lev. 27 : 31. 



THE PRIESTHOOD. 329 

chang it for another less desirable, both were forfeited. It is set down 
to the credit of Hezekiah that he so stimulated the people of his time 
to discharge faithfully their duty in the matter of the tithes that ad- 
ditional rooms were necessary in the temple in which to store them. 1 

20. A second tithe was enjoined in Deuteronomy, but it had only 
indirectly to do with the support of the sanctuary. 2 In the earlier 
legislation instructions had been given that three times in the year 
every male Israslite should appear at the sanctuary. 3 This legisla- 
tion, like that of Deuteronomy, obviously looked forward to a per- 
manent settlement in Palestine. The deuteronomic law, accord- 
ingly, made provision for the normal expenses to be incurred on these 
pilgrimages to the central place of worship. After a tenth of one's 
income had been given to the priests, a second tenth, that is, a tenth 
of the remaining nine tenths, was to be carried, either in kind or its 
value in money, to the sanctuary, and there expended in festive 
meals. Strict injunctions are given that the Levites are not to be 
overlooked in such meals. 4 

It is assumed by certain modern critics that what we have here 
called a second tithe was not really such, but only another, and in 
fact the earlier, form of the legislation found in the book of Numbers, 
The latter, as an alleged later development, they thus bring into 
antagonism w T ith it. Such a theory, however, takes no account of 
the form of the deuteronomic law, which makes a direct reference, 
as it would seem, to that of the book of Numbers. 5 A new regula- 
tion permitting the slaying of animals for food at home instead of 
at the sanctuary, as had been required in the wilderness, diminished 
by so much the former perquisites of the priests. Partly, at least, 
to compensate for this loss, as we may suppose, the law in Deuter- 
onomy respecting the second tithe was framed. 6 It reads: "And 
this shall be the priests' due from the people, from them that offer 
a sacrifice, whether it be ox or sheep, that they shall give unto the 
priest the shoulder, and the two cheeks, and the maw. [And in 
addition to] the firstfruits of thy corn, of thy wine, and of thine 
oil, and [also] the first of the fleece of thy sheep, shalt thou give 
him." 7 The additions made in the brackets simply serve to show 
the relation which this law holds to that of Numbers. There, the 
firstfruits had already been assigned to the priest. Here, the fact is 
recalled in order to add to what is there said of this new source of 
income, the first fleece of the sheep. 

i 2 Chron. 31 : 11. 2 D eut . u : 23-27. 3 Ex. 23 : 14, 17 ; cf. Deut, 12 : 18. * Dent, 12:19; 
14 : 27-29 ; 16 : 14. s Deut. 18 : 2 ; cf. Num. 18 : 20, 21. 6 p eu t. 12 : 15. 1 Deut. 18 : 3, 4. 



330 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

The parts of the animal set apart in the later legislation as the 
portion of the priest are also additional to those given in connection 
with the peace offerings in the other form of the law. 1 Along with 
the stomach, which, on account of its fatness, was regarded as a par- 
ticularly choice morsel, they are here given the shoulder and the two 
cheeks. There, it is the "wave breast" and "heave thigh." And 
while, in the earlier legislation, only the peace offerings were in- 
cluded, in Deuteronomy all sacrificial meals made at the sanctuary 
are indicated, and those in its vicinity. That a second and addi- 
tional tithe is really referred to in Deuteronomy is confirmed by 
Jewish usage and tradition. The apocryphal book of Tobit, for ex- 
ample, puts into Tobit's mouth the words, "The tenth part of all 
increase I gave to the children of Levi, who ministered at Jerusa- 
lem ; and the second tenth part I sold, and went and spent it every 
year in Jerusalem ; and the third [tenth] I gave unto them to whom 
it was meet." The testimony of Josephus supports the same view. 2 

21. In addition to these two tithes, a third, as already intimated 
in the quotation from the book of Tobit, w 7 as also required. It came, 
however, only once in three years, and had but an indirect relation 
to the support of the Levites. The law, found only in Deuteronomy, 
reads as follows : " At the end of every three years thou shalt bring 
forth all the tithe of thine increase in the same year, and shalt lay 
it up within thy gates : and the Levite, because he hath no portion 
nor inheritance with thee, and the stranger, and the fatherless, and 
the widow, which are within thy gates, shall come and shall eat and 
be satisfied ; that the Lord thy God may bless thee in all the work 
of thine hand which thou doest." 3 Some commentators have sup- 
posed that this tithe was not additional to the second, but that a 
special use of the latter was required for the third year. But, as 
far as the letter of the law is concerned, the same reasoning that 
would substitute it for the second tithe on the third year would re- 
quire its being substituted also for the first, and this cannot by any 
means be admitted. 

22. The priests, besides a tithe of the tithe given them by the Le- 
vites, were entitled by the Mosaic legislation to receive in the way of 
support, among other things, the firstborn of men and animals and 
the firstfruits. 4 These were regarded as sacred to God, and his right 
in them, as far as they constituted a pecuniary resource, was trans- 
ferred to the priests. Clean animals, that is, such as might properly 

i Lev. 10 : 15. 2 Tobit 1:7; cf. Josephus, Anliq. 4, 8 : 8. s Deut, 14 : 28, 29 ; cf. 26 : 12, 

* Lev. 27 : 26, 27 ; Num. 18 : 17, 18 ; Deut. 15 : 19, 20. 



THE PRIESTHOOD. 331 

be offered upon the altar, were presented for that purpose, arid sacri- 
ficed as peace or as thank offerings. The fat was consumed on the 
altar; but the " wave breast," the " heave thigh," the shoulder and 
the two cheeks, with the stomach, fell to the priests. The remainder 
of the animal, it would appear, was eaten by the owner and his 
friends at a festive meal. If such animal had blemishes unfitting it 
for sacrifice, it was redeemed at a specified sum ; otherwise it became 
entirely the property of the sanctuary. No animal could be pre- 
sented at the altar before it was a month old. The firstborn of 
ceremonially unclean animals, like the ass and camel, was either 
redeemed or had its neck broken. 1 The latter alternative was prob- 
ably resorted to only when, for some other reason, the animal was 
regarded as comparatively worthless. For the firstborn of an ass 
a lamb might be brought, 2 which was no inconsiderable concession. 
The price paid in redeeming an animal was one fifth more than its 
estimated market value. 

23. As already remarked, the so-called firstfruits were also a 
source of income to the priests. 3 They were of three classes. There 
was, first, the sheaf of barley that was waved before the Lord as the 
introduction to the barley-harvest. Having been threshed, a part 
of the grain was burned on the altar in the form of a meal offering ; 
the rest was the portion of the priests. 4 Again, there was the offer- 
ing of the firstfruits of the wheat-harvest. It consisted of two 
wheat-eu loaves made from two tenths of an ephah of fine flour. 
After being waved before the Lord, the loaves came into the pos- 
session of the priests officiating at the ceremony. 5 Still further, it 
was made the duty of every tiller of the ground to select from the 
products of his land and his fruit trees some part to present at the 
sanctuary. The Talmud named the fruits as wheat, barley, grapes, 
figs, pomegranates and olives. Honey was also included, and cus- 
tom admitted lemons. These products having been presented at the 
altar became the property of the priests, and might be eaten or dis- 
posed of in any other way they saw fit. The amount to be pre- 
sented by any person was left to his own sense of propriety. 6 Again, 
under certain circumstances land was confiscated to the sanctuary, 
that is, inured to the benefit of those officiating there. If, for ex- 
ample, a person had consecrated to Jehovah some part of his hered- 
itary estates, it was within his power to redeem it by adding one 
fifth to the estimated value of its yield before the year of jubilee. If 

iLev. 27:27; Num. 18:15. 2 Ex. 13: 13. 3 Num. 18 : 13. * Lev. 23 : 9-14. 5 Num. 
15 : 19, 21. 6 Ex. 23 : 19 ; Num. 18 : 13 ; Deut. 26 : 2. 



332 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

he did not redeem it, or if lie sold his interest in it, it fell to the priests 
at that time. 1 Moreover, the priests received a part of many of the 
offerings which were presented at the altar. Among these the shew- 
bread may be included. After remaining one week, that is, from 
one Sabbath to the next, on the table in the sanctuary, it might be 
eaten by the priests. From the offerings proper there fell to them 
from the whole burnt offering only the skin of the animal. 2 From 
the meal offering, which always accompanied the burnt offering, they 
had that which was left over after the sacrifice. From the rest of 
the meal offerings they might appropriate whatever remained, ex- 
cepting that which the priests offered for themselves ; that was wholly 
consumed. What was not used of the log of oil that the leper 
brought for the ceremony of his purification belonged to the priests. 3 
From the thank offerings he first received the breast and the thigh. 
To these parts, as we have noted above, there were afterwards added 
the two cheeks, the shoulder and the stomach. These offerings in- 
cluded all sacrifices made at the sanctuary, or in its vicinity, which 
were attended by a festive meal. 4 In the case of the sin offering the 
whole animal, excepting the fat burned on the altar, was set apart 
as the food of the priests. 5 The same was true of the trespass or 
guilt offering. Of certain of these offerings, such as were termed 
" most holy," only priests could partake. 6 Of the rest, their fam- 
ilies, including in some instances servants born in the house, might 
eat. In no case could a stranger or a hired servant eat of flesh any 
part of which had bsen offered on the altar as a sacrifice to Jehovah. 7 
24. Levitical Cities. — The law provided, in addition to these 
incidental and more precarious means of support, that after settle- 
ment in the land of Canaan there should be assigned to the whole 
tribe of- Levi, inclusive of priests and Levites, forty-eight cities 
among the possessions of the different tribes. Of these thirteen were 
afterwards allotted to the priests, and six, three on either side of the 
Jordan, were set apart as cities of refuge. 8 In this allotment, be- 
sides the city proper, there was to go with it a tract of land around 
it for the purpose of pasturage. The property within the cities was 
the inalienable right of the Levites. If for a time they parted with 
it, they were at liberty to redeem it whenever they chose. In any 
case it reverted to them on the year of jubilee. The out-lying pas- 
ture lands, on the other hand, they were not permitted to part with 
on any terms or for any period. These cities, however, being within 

1 Lev. 27 : 16-21. 2 Lev. 7:8. 3 Lev. 14 : 10. * Lev. 7 : 34 ; Deut. 18:3. » Lev. 

6 : 2G-28. o Lev. 6 : 29. i Lev. 22 : 10. 8 Num. 35 : 1-34 ; Josh. 11:4; 21. 



THE PRIESTHOOD. 333 

the bounds of the other tribes, might be inhabited to some degree by 
members of these tribes. 

The amount of land actually given for the maintenance of flocks 
and herds is not certain. The matter is stated in these terms : " Aud 
the suburbs of the cities, which ye shall give unto the Levites, shall 
be from the wall of the city and outward a thousand cubits round 
about. And ye shall measure without the city for the east side two 
thousand cubits, and for the south side two thousand cubits, and for 
the west side two thousand cubits, and for the north side two thou- 
sand cubits, the city being in the midst. This shall be to them the 
suburbs of the cities." To some commentators the conditions in the 
second of these verses seem to be out of harmony with those of the 
first. They conjecture, therefore, that in the first instance pasture 
lands only are referred to ; while in the second an additional one 
thousand cubits for gardens and vineyards are conceded. But the 
second of the two verses seems rather to describe how the one thou- 
sand cubits of land allotted for pasturage are to be measured. The 
line is to extend from the wall of the city one thousand cubits. 
Hence, measuring from one corner to another, it would be two thou- 
sand cubits more than the length of the city wall on that side. In 
general terms this is probably what was meant. It is by no means 
necessary to suppose that the Bible intends to represent that all the 
Levitical cities were surrounded with walls exactly square, or that 
the walls ran precisely north and south and east and west. 

25. As part of a widespread effort to show that the history and 
institutions of the Jews are a purely natural development, it has 
been maintained that such development is particularly illustrated in 
the case of the Levitical priesthood. But this can only be shown 
by refusing to accept the biblical record as genuine and authentic. 
As already noted, the anointing of the high priest was an important 
part of his induction to office, according to what purports to be a 
Mosaic law. At the time of the Babylonian exile, however, when, 
according to the critics referred to, the institutions of Judaism 
reached their culmination, such a practice of anointing had already 
ceased, and it is never heard of afterwards. Again, the Urim and 
Thummim, according to the same Mosaic law, were an essential part 
of the high priest's furnishing ; but after the time of Solomon they 
wholly disappear from the biblical history. To the whole tribe of 
Levi there are assigned in the Pentateuch forty-eight cities, thirteen 
of them being allotted to the priesthood. But on the return from 
the Babylonian exile the priests actually outnumbered those who 



334 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

served technically as Levites. How is it possible that there should 
be so great a disparity between the history of the later times, in 
these and many other respects, and the alleged institutions of those 
times, if they really arose in them ? 

There is nothing whatever in the Old Testament to encourage the 
hypothesis of a priestly assumption of prerogatives to which they 
were not entitled by law and precedent. The priests were never 
anything more than representatives of the people whom God chose 
to be to him a kingdom of priests. Their influence during the 
period covered by the biblical books was always relatively small, 
especially when compared with that of the prophets. Outside the 
sanctuary they were not only deprived of their official dress but 
were subject to not a few civil restrictions. Their income, at its best, 
was not at all extravagant. We have little reason to suppose that 
it ever reached the limits prescribed by law. No penalties were pro- 
vided in the law itself for violations of its injunctions in this partic- 
ular. The actual receipts of the priests for their maintenance, ac- 
cordingly, depended largely on the generosity and religious fidelity 
of their countrymen. How unnatural is it, therefore, to find in the 
Levitical legislation anything like the programme of a later priestly 
class whose demands grew ever greater as their power increased ! 
How impossible is it to do this when it is made a condition that we 
deny the authenticity and genuineness of the documents from which 
we get all our information on the subject! 




The Breastplate of the High Priest. 
Indicating the probable arrangement of names of tribes and the stones. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 

1. The most common way of giving expression to religious feel- 
ing in the patriarchal period seems to have been by animal and other 
sacrifices. The Scriptures represent them as among the earliest acts 
of men. " Cain brought of the fruit of the ground an offering unto 
the Lord. And Abel, he also brought of the firstlings of his flock 
and of the fat thereof." 1 It is not said in the Bible that God at this 
time, or earlier, himself instituted a system of offerings. If he had 
done so, the importance of the matter, in view' of subsequent laws, 
would seem to have called for a declaration to that effect. And the 
reason why he accepted the offering of Abel in preference to that of 
Cain does not appear to be because the former was from the " first- 
lings of his flock and of the fat thereof." It was the spirit of the 
giver more than the gift that he considered. The one was careful to 
choose the best ; the other took, apparently, what first came to hand. 
It is true that Abel's offering happens to correspond, to some extent, 
with that which the Levitical laws afterwards prescribe ; but the 
language of the narrative makes it clear that there is here no reflec- 
tion backwards of abater ritual. The fat spoken of in connection 
with Abel's sacrifice is not that which in the Mosaic legislation is 
ordered to be burned upon the altar. 

2. Moreover, the Hebrew word used for the offering itself is one that 
in the Levitical laws never represents animal sacrifices. The whole 
account is simple narrative. Still it is highly significant as showing 
how T our first parents — for Cain and Abel can have been only imita- 
tors — but recently driven from Eden, felt toward God. They were 
conscious of their dependence; they recognized the divine claim 
upon them ; they desired to propitiate the divine favor. When, at 
a later period, this childlike symbolism was made the medium of 
instruction, a vehicle of grace, and it was sought, by its means, to 
deepen man's sense of dependence and need until the coming of the 
one true Sacrifice, there was simply done in this case what was done 
in many another of the Mosaic institutions. Moses was supernat- 
urally led to make use of an ancient custom, correct it where it 

i Gen. 4 : 3, 4. 

335 



336 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

needed correction, curtail it or build upon it as the case might be, 
and make it a divine law for Israel. The sacrifices of the Old Tes- 
tament were clearly never intended to be an ultimate means of res- 
toration to God. As a shadow of good things to come, however, as 
a present resource for setting forth man's relations to his Maker, 
especially as prefiguring the mystery of the cross, they must be pro- 
nounced exceedingly well chosen. 

3. The practice of human sacrifices was widely prevalent among 
the nations of antiquity. It is not strange that it should have been 
so. It has been thought by some that young children were some- 
times sacrificed upon the altar by the Israelites during their sojourn 
in the wilderness. The inference is drawn principally from the 
strong prohibitions of such sacrifices in the Mosaic laws. 1 There 
was a sufficient ground for such prohibitions, however, in the known 
customs of the Canaanitish and other neighboring peoples. 

4. Sacrifices permitted to Israel were animal and vegetable, or 
bloody and unbloody. The former were naturally regarded as by 
far the more important. The latter were generally presented as 
accompaniments of the former ; although in a few instances offered 
independently. 2 The range of objects allowed by the Mosaic ritual 
to be sacrificed was considerably less than was customary among 
other nations. For the bloody sacrifices only such animals were 
taken as were most common with the people, and were, generally 
speaking, the most useful to them. The same was true of the veg- 
etables used. Besides cattle, sheep and goats, of both sexes, pigeons 
and turtle-doves were permitted. In cases of extreme necessity the 
last two might be substituted for the others. 3 The birds used in the 
ceremony for the purification of a leper were not, properly speaking, 
sacrifices. 4 It was essential that whatever was offered in sacrifices 
should be without blemish, and, if an animal, be at least eight days 
old. It was one of the duties of the priests to make a thorough 
examination of all animals presented at the altar. 5 The prophet 
Malachi, accordingly, was justified in exclaiming against the derelict 
priesthood of his day, "And when ye offer the bliud for sacrifice, it 
is no evil ! and when ye offer the lame and sick, it is no evil ! Pre- 
sent it now unto thy governor ; will he be pleased with thee ? or will 
he accept thy person? saith the Lord of hosts." 6 

5. What the Vegetable Offerings Included. — The veg- 
etable offerings consisted of roasted ears or heads of grain, fine flour 

*Lev. 18:21; 20:2; cf. Fz-k. 20:26. 2 Lev. 5:11; 7:12; Num. 5:15. " Lev. 5:7; 

12 : 8. « Lev. 14 : 4. & Lev. 22 : 20-24, 27. « Mai. 1 : 8. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 337 

(or the latter baked into cakes without leaven), oil, wine and frank- 
incense. 1 They included, besides the ordinary meal and drink offer- 
ing, the first sheaf at the passover, the shew-bread and the pente- 
costal loayes. The object here, as in the case of animal offerings, 
seems to have been to require that which was best known and most 
used by men and most valuable to them. It was common in Egypt 
to make offerings of fruits and flowers. They appear to have been 
excluded from the Mosaic ritual on the ground that they were pro- 
ductions of the earth which might be obtained without special cost 
to the offerer. Among the Israelites it was essential to the idea of a 
sacrifice to Jehovah that it should be property owned by him pre- 
senting it ; that it should be worth something ; and that it should be 
a perfect specimen of its kind. In the later times there was a dis- 
pute between the Pharisees and Sadducees, in which the former main- 
tained against the latter that whatever was offered by the nation as 
a whole should be purchased with funds taken from the revenues of 
the temple and those voluntarily contributed. 

Leaven, as inducing corruption and as a symbol of it, was not 
used in connection with the vegetable offerings. 2 In the same con- 
nection with this prohibition (v. 11), and doubtless on the same gen- 
eral ground, the use of honey as an offering was forbidden. It is 
true that the two loaves of bread offered at pentecost were leavened, 
as were also the cakes waved in connection with the peace offerings ; 3 
but they were simply consecrated by the act, not brought upon the 
altar. In the latter case, as the context plainly shows, they must 
have been unleavened. For the same reason that leaven was not 
used with the meal offerings they were always salted. In the later 
times the practice prevailed of salting all sacrifices, animal as well 
as vegetable, and even the incense, the drink offerings and the wood 
upon the altar. 4 

6. Animal Sacrifices — How Presented. — In the ritual of 
animal sacrifices five things were generally regarded as essential : 
the presentation of the victim ; the laying on of hands by the offerer; 
the slaying ; the sprinkling of the blood ; and the burning of some 
portion of the animal upon the altar. The Bible neither enjoins nor 
forbids the ornamentation of animals brought to be sacrificed. It 
seems quite unlikely that it was practiced by the Israelites, although 
the Talmud allowed it in a single instance. It was customary among 
other peoples. In most cases of animal sacrifices the imposition of 

i Lev. 2:1,4, 14. 2 Lev. 2:11. a Lev. 7 : 12, 13. * Cf. Matt. 1G : 5 -12 ; Luke 13 : 21 ; 1 
Cor. 5:6. 

22 



338 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

hands was enjoined, as in that of the burnt offering, the peace offer- 
ing and the sin offering, when private persons were concerned. It 
is likely that it took place in the case of the trespass offering. When 
a sin offering was made for the entire congregation, the ceremony of 
the laying on of hands was performed by the elders as its represent- 
atives. At a later period three delegates from the Sanhedrin offic- 
iated in this capacity on the day of atonement. The rite obviously 
presupposes substitution. The desire or purpose of the individual or 
community was thereby symbolically transferred to the victim. It 
was not simply sins that were so transferred, but, through the differ- 
ent species of offerings, the act of expiation, of thanksgiving and of 
self-surrender. In the case of burnt or peace offerings for all Israel 
there was no laying on of hands, and the same was true in such 
private offerings as the passover lamb, the firstborn, the tithes of 
animals, and when doves were presented. It was omitted also in the 
daily offerings of the sanctuary. The rite itself was a most impress- 
ive one ; perhaps it might be called the climax of the whole sacri- 
ficial ceremony. The Talmud provided that both hands of the 
offerer should be laid between the horns of the animal. When it 
was a sin offering, it was made to stand, during the rite, facing some- 
what toward the west of north. The offerer approached it from the 
east and stood at its side, not in front, as he laid his hands upon it. 
A ceremony somewhat similar in meaning to that of the laying on 
of hands was that of waving or heaving (elevating) an object pre- 
sented at the altar. It took place in some of the animal sacrifices, 
but especially in connection with the vegetable offerings. In the 
former class of objects the waving was horizontal ; in the latter, per- 
pendicular. The rite came into use for the most part only when a 
small portion of what was presented was intended for the altar. 

7. The slaughter of the animal designed for private sacrifice was 
generally left to the one offering it, except in the case of birds. 1 In 
public sacrifices, as well as in those for the leper, the animal was slain 
by the priests. The burnt, sin and trespass offerings w T ere placed, 
during the ceremony of slaying them, on the north side of the altar. 
The life was taken in order to obtain the blood. This was carefully 
drawn by a priest into a cup, which being pointed could not be set 
down, and sprinkled, according to the nature of the offering, around 
the base of the altar, on its horns, or before the vail in the holy 
place. 2 Once in the year only, as we have seen, it was carried into 
the holy of holies. This use of the blood was based on representa- 

1 Lev. 1 : 15. 2 Lev. 4 : G, 17, 30, 34 ; cf, Gen. 9:4; Ex. 12 : 13 ; Deut. 21 : 1-9. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 339 

tions often found in the Pentateuch and expressed in the words, 
" For the life of the flesh is in the blood : and I have given it to you 
upon the altar to make atonement for your souls : for it is the blood 
that maketh atonement by reason of the life." 

After the sprinkling of the blood followed the process of skinning 
the animal, dividing it into its several parts and cleansing them. 
This duty was done by priests, whose number varied according to 
the animal sacrificed. It was made a rule by the rabbis that eight 
priests should officiate at the slaughter of a sheep or goat, and the 
preparation for the accompanying meal and drink offerings ; twelve 
in the sacrifice of a ram ; and twenty-four in that of a bullock. 
When otherwise prepared, the different parts of the animal were 
salted and placed upon the altar. A piece once put there could not 
be withdrawn. It was sanctified by the altar. 1 

8. The idea of using fire for the destruction of the object sacrificed 
was not that it was given over to the consuming anger of God. On 
the contrary, as the Hebrew word employed shows, it was simply a 
method of bringing it before God and rendering it acceptable to 
him. The fire was not " strange fire," but something which God had 
originally provided for the purpose. 2 The principal part of the 
victim, besides the blood which had been offered in another way, 
ascended as a " sweet-smelling savor to God." When fire was needed 
for the altar of incense it was not kindled anew, but taken from that 
of the burnt offering. This would not have been the case if the fire 
used there had been looked upon as a symbol of the d-ivme wrath. 
The entire sacrificial code is full of the idea of the satisfaction which 
God derived from the burnt sacrifices of his people when rightly 
offered. 3 

9. Of the different kinds of sacrifice all were offered either on the 
ground of communion with God or with the desire to restore such 
communion when broken. To the former class belonged the burnt 
and peace offerings ; to the latter the sin and trespass offerings. The 
burnt offering has in the Hebrew the significant name of olah, that 
is, that which ascends ; referring to the fact that it was wholly con- 
sumed upon the altar. It was sometimes named olah kalil, that is, 
a "whole burnt offering;" in Greek, "holocaust."* It symbolized 
entire surrender. There is one passage, it is true, where the idea of 
atonement is connected with it ; for it could not be offered without 
the shedding of blood. 5 But it presupposes atonement rather than 

i Cf. Ex. 29 : 37 ; Matt. 23 : 19. 2 Gen. 8 : 21 ; Lev. 1 : 9 ; 4 : 31. 3 Ex. 29 : 18 ; Lev. 2 : 2, 9, 
12 ; 3 : 5, G ; 4 : 31 ; Num. 15 : 3, 7, 10, 13 ; 18:17; cf. Eph. 5:2. « 1 Sain. 7:9. 5 Lev. 1 : 4. 



340 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

looks forward to it. It was one of the most common of sacrifices. 
A principal part of the daily morning and evening service in the 
sanctuary was the offering of the burnt offering. None of the great 
national festivals could be celebrated without it. Even if other 
animal sacrifices were offered they were regarded as incomplete with- 
out this one. It has been questioned whether in cases where the sin 
and burnt offering were offered at the same time the former always 
preceded. It seems likely that the practice was not uniform. In 
instances where the idea of atonement or purification predominated, 
especially on the day of atonement, the sin offering preceded, in the 
ritual, the burnt offering ; in others, where that which characterized 
the whole series of offerings was rather adoration and praise than 
confession, the burnt offering came first. In the case of the dis- 
charge of the Nazarite from his vow, the sin offering preceded. 1 

10. The Burnt Offering. — For the burnt offering an unblem- 
ished male animal was necessary. It might be a bullock, ram or 
goat. In the case of poor people, as already noted, turtle-doves, or 
the young of tame doves, were accepted. These might be of either 
gender. The blood of the victim was thrown on the altar below the 
red line, which in the last temple was drawn around it five cubits 
from its base. If an animal, it was afterwards skinned, the skin 
becoming the property of the officiating priest. The stomach, the 
entrails and the "sinew 2 of the hip" were then carefully removed, 
the carcass divided into sections corresponding to the structure of the 
animal* washed and salted, and laid upon the fire of the altar. In 
later times it was customary for the priest first to lay on the head, 
the rump pieces and fat. He then took the remaining parts, the legs 
and inwards, which in the meantime had been cleansed by their 
owner, and placed them above the others. 

When birds were offered the officiating priest pinched off the head, 
allowing the blood to fall upon the sides of the altar. Before it was 
put on the fire the feathers of the body and wings, the crop, and the 
entrails with their contents were separated from it. The wings were 
rent without being removed from the body. The carcass was placed 
on the altar in other respects entire, the head being burned with the 
rest. Subsequent to the Babylonian exile it was allowed, on occa- 
sions, to offer whole burnt offerings for others than Jews. 3 The em- 
peror Augustus, we are told, had a daily burnt offering, consisting 
of two lambs and a bullock, presented in the temple of Herod. 

i Lev. 5:7; 12 : G, 8 ; Num. 6 : 14, 16 ; chaps. 28, 29. 2 Gen. 32 : 32. 3 Ezra 6:10; cf. Ex. 
18:12. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 341 

Afterwards, when this concession was thought to carry with it a rec- 
ognition of civil headship, it was refused by the Jews. 1 

11. The Peace Offering. — Another form of sacrifice among 
the Hebrews was the peace or thank offering. The Hebrew word 
commonly used for it is shelamim, which is a plural, the singular 
being found only in Amos 5 : 22. The double title arose from the 
usage of the old versions by which our own was modified. The 
Latin Vulgate, following the Septuagint, is authority for the name 
" peace offering." Luther's German version, on the other hand, 
adopted for the original word the rendering " thank offering." The 
former title corresponds better with the original word, which carries 
with it the idea of fellowship and communion with God. Still an- 
other name, zebach, that is, "slaying" (with the added idea of its 
being in some sense a sacrifice), is also found in the Pentateuch. 2 
In the peace offering only the choicest part of the animal came upon 
the altar. The thing chiefly emphasized was the accompanying 
sacred meal. In it God was regarded as the guest of the individual 
or the community. It prefigured, indeed, the state of things so 
beautifully set forth in that familiar passage of the Apocalypse, 
" Behold, I stand at the door and knock : if any man hear my voice 
and open the door, I will come in to him, and will sup with him, and 
he with me." 3 The flesh of the animal was symbolically divided 
between God and his servants the priests, on the one hand, and the 
owner, with his family and friends, on the other. That which was 
placed on the altar, the fat of the animal — that is, the fat adhering 
to the inwards — was for Gocl. 

To the priests, as already stated, were given, after they had been 
waved, the breast, shoulder, two cheeks, stomach and right thigh. 
The remainder belonged to the offerer, who made a sacrificial meal 
of it for his friends, including the Levites, strangers, orphans and 
widows. 4 The skin in this case fell to the person or persons bringing 
the sacrifice. The blood of the animal, as in the case of the burnt 
offering, was thrown around the base of the altar. Animals brought 
as peace offerings might be of either gender ; but doves, as being 
insufficient to furnish a common meal, were excluded. In certain 
kinds of them, animals having blemishes were accepted, as long as 
there was nothing in them unfitting them for food. 5 There were two 
principal forms of peace offerings, public and private. The lambs 
presented at pentecost, for example, were a public peace offering. 

i Josephus, Wars of the Jeivs, 2, 17:2. 2 Gen. 31 : 54. 3 Rev. 3 : 20 ; cf. Gen. 18 : 1-10. 

4 Lev. 7 : 30-32 ; Deut. 18 : 3, 4. 5 Lev. 22 : 23. 



o42 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

They were regarded as " most holy," and accordingly were slain on 
the north side of the altar, and their flesh, the fat having been 
burned, was eaten only by the officiating priests in the holy place. 1 
The remaining public peace offerings were regarded simply as 
" holy," being slain on the south side of the altar ; and the desig- 
nated parts having been severally offered, or given to the priests, 
the rest was eaten by the offerers, at the sanctuary or anywhere in 
Jerusalem. 

12. As it respects the private peace offerings, it has been too 
hastily inferred from Leviticus 7 : 11-21 that there were but three 
kinds (those there specified), and that they were entirely distinct 
from one another. They may be more properly divided into two 
classes : such as were legally binding and such as were purely vol- 
untary. To the former class belonged solely the peace offering of 
the Nazarite. 2 Among the voluntary peace offerings may be dis- 
tinguished, first, those made because of a vow. They were prom- 
ised, and subsequently brought to the Lord either in view of past 
deliverances or for the purpose of securing present divine inter- 
position. There was, secondly, the spontaneous peace offering, which 
depended on no previous vow or promise, but was the result of a 
simple prompting of the heart. 3 Thirdly, there was a special sort 
offered in token of thanksgiving. It might be either a voluntary 
offering or one that the offerer had taken upon himself as an obli- 
gation. It differed from the other two in that in connection with it 
there was required a meal offering. A shorter time, too, was allowed 
for the consumption of this species of peace offering ; in other words, 
it was regarded as more sacred than the others. 4 

13. The Sin Offering. — It is a noteworthy fact that the word 
used in Hebrew for sin offering is the same as that for sin. It shows 
that in the Hebrew mind there was a close ethical connection be- 
tween the two ideas. This kind of offering undoubtedly comes 
nearest to representing the underlying idea of all bloody sacrifices, 
and in the list of those legally appointed it stands pre-eminent. In 
other sacrifices the notion of atonement is merely incidental ; in the 
sin and trespass (or guilt) offering it is central. And the principal 
difference between the last two is that the one looks more to satisfac- 
tion and restitution, the other to expiation. The one considered 
chiefly the offence, the other the offender. The ritual of the sin 
offering was of a much more rigid and serious character than that 
of the trespass offering. The latter was always accompanied with 

i Lev. 23 : 20. 2 Num. 6 : 13, 14. 3 Lev. 7 : 28-34. * Lev. 7 : 12 16. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 343 

the makiijg of amends ; the sin offering sufficed of itself. The tres- 
pass offering was of a private and individual character. The sin 
offering might be for a community or the whole people. The one 
was brought on festival occasions, the other never. The sin offering 
was brought in connection with other sacrifices, the trespass offering 
only by itself, except in a single instance — the cleansing of a leper. 
In the case of the latter the blood was cast against the sides of the 
altar ; in the other, there was a variety of solemn ceremonies pre- 
scribed. With these distinctions there was certainly room for both 
among Mosaic institutions, and the theory of some critics that the 
trespass offering is but a later subordinate development from the sin 
offering has as little biblical as logical support. The only historic 
basis for it is the fact that in one instance the ram of the trespass 
offering is called a " sin offering." 1 But as matter of fact, in under- 
lying idea both are sin offerings — that is, offerings for sin. The 
probable reason why all mention of the trespass offering fails in the 
pre-exilian history, with the exception of 2 Kings 12 : 16 and notices 
in Ezekiel, 2 is that it was a purely private offering and never pre- 
sented for the whole community. 

14. As it respects the occasions when sin offerings were brought, 
they were offered for the whole community at all the great festivals : 
that of the new moon, the passover, pentecost, new year's day and 
the day of atonement. 3 In these cases the idea of the offering w 7 as 
purification for past offences. Sin offerings for individuals, on the 
other hand, might be iDrought at any time. They were, first, such 
as were brought without reference to specific transgressions, but had 
regard to those defilements of the body which directly suggested a 
corrupt nature: as in the case of one purified after childbirth; the 
cleansing of the leper ; for the Nazarite after the expiration of his 
vow, and some others. 4 Secondly, they were such as were offered 
for those who had unwittingly incurred guilt. The law made no 
provision for persons sinning presumptuously, or with " a high 
hand," except punishment by death or removal from the congrega- 
tion. The rabbis, however, greatly extended the list of sins com- 
mitted "through ignorance." In the earlier practice, doubtless, 
there were many mitigating circumstances admitted, which brought 
the more overt transgressions into the class of offences for which atone- 
ment might be made. 

Some peculiarities of the sin offering, in distinction from the tres- 

i Num. 5 : 8 ; cf. 2 Kings 12 : 16. 2 Ezek. 40 : 39 ; 42 : 13 ; 44 : 29. 3 Num. 28 ; 29 : 5, 11, 
16, 22, 31. 4 Lev. 4 : 4, 14, 23, 28 ; 5 : 1, 2, 4, 6 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 14 : 19 ; 15 : 15 ; Num. 6 : 10, 14. 



344 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

pass offering, have been noted. Others distinguishing it from other 
offerings may also be mentioned. Only in this was the ceremony 
practiced of moistening the horns of the altar of burnt offering 
with the blood of the victim. It was done with the finger. In the 
case of the sin offering alone is it definitely said that the blood re- 
maining after the other rites were finished shall be poured out at 
the base of the altar, although, according to tradition, it was actually 
done in every instance where animals were sacrificed. 1 Again, in 
certain instances the blood of the sin offering was sprinkled abroad. 
This was true when the high priest brought one for himself. Carry- 
ing the blood into the holy place he sprinkled it several times in the 
direction of the curtain of the oracle and moistened with it the 
horns of the altar of incense. A similar sprinkling of the blood 
took place when a sin offering was brought for the entire people. 2 
The fat adhering to the inwards of the victim, it being a bullock 
in these cases, having been burnt on the altar, the rest of the animal 
was consumed in some clean place " without the camp." 3 

A plain object of all these rites was to set forth impressively the 
fact of uncleanness and the necessity of atonement for it. How 
seriously they were meant to be regarded may be inferred from a single 
circumstance. If in the course of his administration a drop of the 
blood of one of the sin offerings fell upon the garment of the priest, 
it was to be washed in a ceremonially-clean place. The earthen ves- 
sel also in which the flesh, in the case of some of them, was cooked 
for the priests was broken in pieces ; if it were of metal it was rinsed 
and scoured. 4 Only the flesh of those sin offerings whose blood was 
carried neither into the holy place nor the oracle was eaten by the 
priests. That of the others was burned ; because, in these cases, the 
priests were among those for whom the sacrifices were offered. Lit- 
urgically speaking, it was this fact that divided the sin offerings into 
two distinct classes ; though the eating in the one case symbolized 
the same thing as the burning in the other — the divine acceptance 
of the offering. 5 

The animals presented as sin offerings differed according to cir- 
cumstances. In the case of the high priest it w 7 as invariably a bull- 
ock ; for the congregation it was either a bullock or a male goat ; 
for a " ruler," a male goat ; for a private person, a female goat, or 
a kid of the same gender and one year old, or a lamb. In cases of 
extreme poverty, two turtle-doves or young pigeons might be sub- 

1 Lev. 4 : 17, 18. 2 Lev. 4 : 13-21. 3 Lev. 4 : 3 12 ; cf. Heb. 13: 11-13. * Lev. 6 : 27-30. 

s Lev. 10 : 17. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 345 

stituted for the lamb ; or even one tenth of an ephah of fine wheat 
flour, without the usual oil and frankincense. 1 

15. The Trespass Offering. — As in the case of the sin offer- 
ing, the same Hebrew word is used to indicate the trespass offering 
and the trespass for which it was brought. In no other way, per- 
haps, could the fact have been more forcibly expressed that imme- 
diate interposition was necessary to prevent evil consequences. Guilt 
and the punishment of guilt to the Hebrew mind were thus made 
inseparable ideas. Like the burnt and sin offering, the trespass 
offering belonged to those reckoned as " most holy ;" that is, such 
part of it as did not come upon the altar was eaten exclusively by 
priests in the fore-court of the sanctuary. All such sacrifices, too, 
were slain on the north side of the altar of burnt offering. "And 
he shall kill the he-lamb in the place where they kill the sin offering 
and the burnt offering, in the place of the sanctuary : for as the sin 
offering is the priest's, so is the guilt [trespass] offering : it is most 
holy." 2 

Certain correspondences and differences between the sin and tres- 
pass offering have already been noted. Still others remain. As it 
respected the kind and number of animals offered, there was greater 
limitation here than in the case of the sin offering. More freedom 
was allowed in the latter because the sin offering was a more fixed 
and continually-recurring rite, and was an obligation on persons in 
the greatest variety of circumstances. For the trespass offering, on 
the other hand, a ram or a he -lamb was alone required. Beyond 
them, indeed, no choice was permitted, whether the person were poor 
or rich. In the use of the blood, moreover, as already intimated, 
the trespass offering corresponded to the other animal sacrifices 
rather than to the sin offering. In one case only was the blood 
of the trespass offering differently applied. On the occasion of the 
cleansing of a leper it was put by the priest on the leper's right ear 
and toe and the thumb of his right hand. 3 

16. The cases for which the trespass offering was legally prescribed 
were seven. Those mentioned in Leviticus 5 : 1-6, though some- 
times reckoned in this category, really required a sin offering. The 
first is noticed in Leviticus 5 : 15, 16. It is that of a person sinning 
unwittingly in the " holy things." The reference is to an improper 
rendering of the tithes, firstlings and the like. One who by mis- 
take had defrauded the sanctuary was permitted to make restitution 
by offering an unblemished ram, of a certain fixed valuation, as a 

i Lev. 4 : 24, 28, 32 ; 5 : 7, 11 ; Num. 15 : 24, 27. 2 Lev. 14 : 13 ; cf. 1 : 11 ; 7 : 2. 3 Lev. 14 : 14. 



346 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

trespass offering, and restoring the thing withheld, together with one 
fifth of its value in money. The second case follows in the imme- 
diate context. 1 It concerns one who, without direct intention, had 
transgressed some command of God, which, if wittingly done, would 
have been punished by death or exclusion from the congregation. 
The third instance has to do with a man who has dealt falsely with 
his neighbor in a matter of deposit or of bargain, or has oppressed 
him, or has found that which had been lost and dealt falsely therein, 
and sworn to a lie. 2 In such transgressions the man had first to 
make restitution in full, adding to the same one fifth of the value 
of the object in money. Secondly, he had to bring a trespass offer- 
ing to the Lord. It is worthy of notice that the acceptance of the 
offering is made dependent on repentance, as shown by a voluntary 
pecuniary satisfaction previously rendered. 3 

A fourth instance where a trespass offering was required was that 
of criminal intercourse of a man with a betrothed maid. 4 Death 
was the penalty affixed to this crime in the case of a free woman. 
Here it is looked upon rather from the Old Testament point of view 
that another had property rights in the bondmaid. A remark of 
Delitzsch in this connection will be generally approved : " The Old 
Testament law makes here a distinction in classes which Christian 
morality cannot allow." Fifthly, a trespass offering was called for 
in the ceremony for purifying a leper. 5 It was on the ground that 
the Jewish community had been unwittingly injured in its standing 
as well as its support. The offering, however, was not, as in other 
instances, a ram but a he-lamb ; that is, in so far there was a letting 
up from the full requirements of the law. In like manner and for 
much the same reason, a Nazarite who had defiled himself by com- 
ing in contact with a dead body was obliged to bring a trespass 
offering. 6 He had been thereby not only interrupted in the fulfill- 
ment of his vow, but the time already spent in its fulfillment passed 
for nothing. He must begin again. On this account some restitu- 
tion to the sanctuary was considered essential. The pecuniary bur- 
den upon him, however, was made as light as possible. 

Finally, we read in the book of Ezra of certain men who had 
married foreign wives that " they gave their baud that they would 
put away their wives ; and being guilty, they offered a ram of the 
flock for their guilt." Their guilt consisted in doing what the law 
had not indeed directly prohibited — for it had only forbidden inter- 

i Lov. 5:17-19. 2 Lev. 6 : 2, 3. 3 Cf. Num. 5 : 5-8. * Lev. 19 : 20, 21. » Lev. 14. 

6 Num. 6 : 6-12. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 347 

marriages with Canaanitish peooles — but that which was clearly 
against the spirit of the law, and brought the little community re- 
cently returned from exile into the greatest moral peril. Although 
the trespass offering is so infrequently mentioned in the Bible 
after the Mosaic period, when it does appear here in the time of 
the exile it is as a legal obligation well known and generally rec- 
ognized. 

17. A principal idea underlying animal sacrifices was the child- 
like one of a meal which the offerer prepared for God. In such a 
meal vegetables, with bread and wine, might not ordinarily fail ; 
hence the so-called "meal" or vegetable offerings not only accom- 
panied all the burnt and peace offerings, but were often presented 
independently. In several passages the material of this offering is 
specifically called "the bread of God." 1 In the case of animal 
offerings, the animal brought, except it were the first born, might 
be one which had been reared by the offerer or one bought with his 
money. In vegetable offerings, on the other hand, only that which 
the offerer had produced on his own land, and in some of them had 
prepared in his own house, was admissible. The salt that was added 
to them, as to all other sacrifices, had a similar meaning, setting forth 
the idea of friendship and fellowship. No doubt it tended to pre- 
vent corruption and rendered the food more palatable. But custom, 
from the most ancient times, had established that to eat bread and 
salt with a person was to enter into friendly relations with him, a 
bond, indeed, which death alone should break. 2 

18. The-re were certain offerings required which were really veg- 
etable offerings and yet were not technically classed among them. 
Such was the so-called second tithe described in Deuteronomy 14 : 
22-27. It was to be eaten " before the Lord," that is, at his sanc- 
tuary. Such, too, was the third tithe. A festival was provided 
from it at home ; but none the less was it looked upon as a sacred 
meal, to which the wards of Jehovah, the Levites, were to be spec- 
ially welcomed. 3 The first tithe, likewise, which was wholly devoted 
to the support of the Levites, is definitely named " a heave offering" 
unto the Lord. 4 In each of these cases the presentation to the Lord 
is regarded as an essential part of the transaction. The sheaf waved 
in the sanctuary on the sixteenth of Nisan was a similar offering ; 
also the offering of firstfruits, whose ceremonial is given in Deuter- 
onomy 26 : 1-11 ; the offering of the first of the dough, mentioned 
in Numbers 15 : 20, 21 ; and the two w^ave loaves of the day of 

i Lev. 21 : 6, 8, 17. 2 Num. 18 : 19 ; 2 Chron. 13 : 5. 3 Deut. 14 : 28, 29. * Num. 18 : 24. 



348 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



pentecost. 1 The last even take the name of " meal offering." The 
shew-bread, moreover, placed anew on the table every Sabbath was 
an offering of this sort, as well as the parched grain of the firstfruits 
spoken of in Leviticus 2 : 14. The last, in fact, marks the point of 
transition from the vegetable offerings in the broad sense to those 
employed and spoken of in the narrower technical sense. 

19. Classes of Vegetable Offeeings. — The vegetable offer- 
ings proper may be divided, for convenience, into two classes : those 

which were brought inde- 
pendently and those which 
were brought as accompa- 
niments to other offerings. 
Again, the former class may 
be divided into those a por- 
tion of which was given to 
the officiating priest and 
those which were wholly con- 
sumed. No part of these 
offerings was ever eaten by 
the persons bringing them. 
They were regarded, in this 
respect, as "most holy." To 
the independent meal offer- 
ings of the first class w T as 
reckoned, first, the presenta- 
tion of raw wheat flour, 
mixed with oil and frankin- 
cense, described in Leviticus 
2 : 1-3. 2 A handful of the 
mixture was burnt on the al- 
tar ; the rest was for " Aaron 
and his sons." To the same category belonged, second, the obla- 
tion described in the immediate context, consisting of oven-baked 
unleavened cakes and wafers mixed with oil; 3 also, third, similar 
cakes baked in a pan and broken up into convenient morsels; and, 
fourth, what is called a meal offering of the frying-pan. 4 

In each of these instances a " memorial " only was burnt upon the 
altar. What was left was the priest's. The fifth independent meal 
offering, that of the firstfruits, has already been described above. It 
was composed of " corn in the ear parched with fire, bruised corn of 

1 Lev. 23 : 17 ; cf. Ex. 34 : 22. 2 cf. Ex. 29 : 2. a Lev. 2:4. * Lev. 2 : 7. 




Supposed Frankincense (Boswellia Thurifera). 
(After Dr. Birdwood.) 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 349 

the fresh ear," mingled with oil and frankincense. 1 Sixth, a meal 
offering was necessary in case a man would put a suspected wife on 
trial for infidelity to him. It was of barley meal and prepared with- 
out oil or frankincense, being a " meal offering of jealousy . . . 
bringing iniquity to remembrance." 2 All these meal offerings were 
private and purely voluntary ; the last -one, however, only in the 
sense that it was wholly at the option of the husband to subject his 
wife to trial or not. There was still another which was not volun- 
tary but enjoined by law, where but a part of the material came 
upon the altar : it was that which was accepted for a sin offering in 
cases of extreme poverty. It is the sole instance where the idea of 
atonement is connected with the meal offering. 3 

20. Of the class of independent meal offerings, the whole of which 
was consumed upon the altar, there were but tAvo : that brought by 
the high priest at his consecration and daily afterwards, 4 and that 
required in the ceremony for the purification of a leper. 5 The pas- 
sage Leviticus 6 : 20-23 was interpreted by the later Jews to mean 
that from the time of the first anointing of the high priest he was 
daily to bring a meal offering. The practice in the time of our Lord 
was to bring one half of it with the morning, and the other half in 
connection with the evening, sacrifice. An ordinary priest, however, 
might represent the chief priest on such occasions ; and this, per- 
haps, met sufficiently well the original law which made the observ- 
ance binding on "Aaron and his sons." 

The meal offerings which accompanied most of the burnt and 
peace offerings were originally appointed only for the period follow- 
ing the conquest of Canaan. 6 There were certain burnt offerings, 7 
as also peace offerings — the two lambs offered at pentecost — which 
were supplemented by no meal offering. The latter, whenever 
brought in conjunction with animal sacrifices, and at no other time, 
had associated with it a drink offering. According to the practice 
of the Jews, no part of the wine of which it was composed was con- 
sidered a perquisite of the priests, although the law is silent concern- 
ing the matter. 8 It was wholly poured out, it would appear, at the 
base of the altar. In the Hebrew ritual, as was not the case in 
heathen religions, wine was never offered by itself. 

The law required a meal offering with the daily morning and even- 
ing sacrifices, as well as with the additional daily ones appointed for 
the various festivals, including the Sabbath; 9 with the burnt offer- 

i Lev. 2:14. 2Nuip.5:15. 3 Lev. 5 : 11-13. * Lev. 6 : 23. 5 Lev. 14: 10, 20. 

6 Num. 15 : 2-4. ' Lev. 12:6. 8 Ecclus. 50 : 15 ; Josephus, Antiq. 3, 9 : 4. » Num. 28, 29. 



350 SACREI> ANTIQUITIES. 

ing brought on the presentation of the firstfruits at the passover 1 
and at pentecost; 2 with the burnt and sin offerings made for the 
congregation when it had sinned unwittingly ; 3 and with those of the 
Nazarite when he had completed his vow. 4 In three instances the 
accompanying meal offering consisted of flour baked in some form : 
the daily offering for the high priest, the peace offerings brought as 
a special thanksgiving, and those of the Nazarite. 5 The meal offer- 
ings requiring oil and frankincense were those where unbaked fine 
flour was used ; when the same was baked in a pan, a frying-pan or 
oven ; the wafers ; the high priest's daily offering, and the flour made 
from the passover sheaf. The meal offerings requiring only oil were 
those accompanying a burnt or peace offering. That requiring only 
frankincense was the shew-bread. Those where neither oil nor frank- 
incense was necessary were the two pentecostal loaves, that made 
by a jealous husband, and that which was substituted for a sin 
offering. 

The proportion of flour, oil and wine used in the different meal 
offerings was as follows: In conjunction with a sheep, one tenth of 
an ephah of flour, one fourth of a hin of oil and one fourth of a hin 
of wine. With a ram, two tenths of an ephah of flour and one 
tenth of a hin of oil and wine respectively were required. With a 
bullock, the amount of flour was three tenths of an ephah, and of 
oil and wine one half a hin. In the voluntary meal offerings the 
limit downwards was one tenth of an ephah of flour, and wine and 
oil in proportion. This amount might be increased to six ephahs of 
flour, but not beyond ; this being the largest amount used in the 
public meal offerings at the feast of tabernacles. 6 In the case of 
baked meal offerings the material was brought in the form of ten 
cakes, except in that of the high priest, when the number was twelve 
with reference to the twelve tribes of Israel. The latter were broken 
each into two parts ; twelve parts being offered at the daily morn- 
ing, and twelve at the evening, sacrifice. 

21. The Daily Sacrifices. — The daily sacrifices in the sanc- 
tuary consisted, first, of a burnt offering of a lamb with its ap- 
pointed meal offering. This was followed by the meal offering of the 
high priest. Then came the offering of incense at the altar of in- 
cense, and, succeeding this, the drink offering for the previous meal 
offering, the pouring out of which was accompanied by the blast of 
trumpets and chanting by a choir of Levites not less than twelve in 

» Lev. 23 : 13. 2 Lev. 23 : 18. » Num. 15 : 24. * Num. G : 15. 6 Ex. 29 : 40 ; cf. Lev. 
8 : 2G ; Lev. 7 : 12-15 ; Num. 6 : 15. 6 Num. 15 : 1-12. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 351 

number. In the second temple forms of prayer were occasionally 
used. In case of absence from the sanctuary these prayers were 
repeated by the priests at their homes. On the Sabbath two lambs 
were offered as burnt offerings, with the appointed meal and drink 
offerings. 1 

22. Certain modern critics, already several times referred to as a 
class, profess to find evidence of a prolonged development in the 
system of Levitical sacrifices extending far beyond the period of the 
exodus. Such evidence, however, rests largely on a more or less ar- 
bitrary division of the material of the Pentateuch into inharmonious 
documents, and is further supported by an appeal to facts and cus- 
toms of Israelitish history which are mostly exceptional and ab- 
normal. A certain degree of development in all institutions of the 
Pentateuch is to be admitted. It was more than a step from the 
primitive customs of the patriarchs to the sinaitic legislation. It 
was a very important step from the period of sojourn in the wilder- 
ness to that of settled life over a wide extent of territory in Canaan. 
The legislation of Deuteronomy, promulgated on the eve of the con- 
quest, indicates this advance. It insists, as is done nowhere else, on 
the centralization of worship : all sacrifices are still to be brought 
and only brought to one central altar. This may be said to be a 
distinguishing peculiarity of the deuteronomic form of the law as 
far as it relates to worship. Worship at a plurality of altars had 
indeed never been conceded by statute, though the contrary has 
been alleged, principally on the basis of Exodus 20 : 24. In the 
wilderness, with the congregation gathered about the tabernacle, 
there was no need of emphasizing the matter of worship at one altar ; 
but when Israel was about to cross the Jordan there was a special 
call for it, and it was done. 

23. Two considerations are particularly urged against the Mosaic 
origin of the Levitical system of sacrifices : first, the practice of 
the Israelites down to the time of David and even afterwards ; and 
second, the alleged attitude of the earlier prophets. Respecting the 
first point, it is to be admitted that there was much in the practice 
of Israel during the period mentioned which was not in harmony 
with the Levitical code. But the modern critic was not the first to 
discover this. It is either noticed on the spot and stamped as trans- 
gression by the historians who communicate the fact ; or it occurred 
in a time of general lapse, like the hundred years immediately fol- 
lowiug the capture of the ark by the Philistines, when the people 

i Num. 28 : 9, 10. 



352 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

provoked God " to anger with their high places," and he was wroth 
with his inheritance, " so that he forsook the tabernacle of Shiloh, 
the tent which he placed among men." x During this time statute 
law largely gave place to common law, and the Israelites fell back 
to customs which had ruled before the time of Moses. Even prophets 
like Samuel and Elijah, though doubtless under divine direction, 
sacrificed at places where the tabernacle was not. 2 This widespread 
lapse, with its inevitable consequences of social and political degen- 
eracy, was not without its compensations. Israel learned the serious 
lesson which needed to be learned, that without Jehovah it could not 
prosper. The season of discipline through which it passed prepared 
the nation, as perhaps nothing else could have done, to understand 
the significance and appreciate the privileges of the temple at Jeru- 
salem. 

Respecting the second point, it may be said that there is no valid 
evidence that the prophets ever showed any antagonism to the cus- 
tom of animal sacrifices. When, for example, Jeremiah represents 
God as saying, " For I spake not unto your fathers, nor commanded 
them in the day that I brought them out of the land of Egypt, con- 
cerning burnt offerings or sacrifices," 3 he cannot have meant to inti- 
mate that the sacrificial code of the Pentateuch did not exist, or that 
it was not of Mosaic origin or of divine authority. He meant just 
what he did in another place when he said, " To what purpose 
cometh there to me frankincense from Sheba and the sweet cane 
from a far country ? your burnt offerings are not acceptable, nor 
your sacrifices phasing unto me." 4 He meant that the Israelites 
of his time were building on the outward rite instead of the inward 
spiritual fact symbolized by it. These texts can be used against the 
existence of Levitical institutions and their acknowledged authority 
in Jeremiah's time only so far as they are used to show that the 
prophet was hostile to all kinds of sacrifices. But the latter is im- 
possible. He was a loyal Israelite and himself a priest. He else- 
where speaks of animal sacrifices as a crowning blessing of the hap- 
pier future before his people. 5 

Jeremiah was a contemporary and coadjutor of Josiah, who was 
one of the most zealous of the reforming kings of Israel. Pie meant 
precisely what Samuel meant when he said to the recreant Saul, who 
had sought to compensate for deliberate transgression by a public 
sacrifice, " Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken 

1 Ps. 78 : 58-60. * 1 Sam. 7 : 5-10 ; 10:8; 11 : 14, 15 ; 16 : 2 ; 1 Kings 13 : 30 38. 3 Jor. 

7 : 22 ; cf. Amos 5 : 22. * Jer. 6 : 20. & Jor. 33 : 18, 21. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 353 

than the fat of rams." 1 He meant what the prophet Hosea did 
when, in rebuke of the gross externalism of his day, he declares as 
the mind of the Lord, " For I desire mercy, and not sacrifice ; and 
the knowledge of God more than burnt offerings." 2 What was ob- 
jected to was not the act of sacrificing, above all, not sacrificing in 
harmony with the Levitical ritual, but spiritual misdirection; a 
habit of worship which ended with itself and carried with it no sub- 
mission of the will. 

24. Ceremonial Purifications. — The subjects of purifications 
and of vows have a close relation to that of sacrifices, and may ac- 
cordingly be treated here. The Israelitish laws of purification were 
of a ceremonial nature, and belonged to those " rudiments of the 
world" which, from the Christian point of view, may well seem 
"beggarly." 3 Nevertheless they fulfilled an important function in 
the education of the covenant people, especially in the direction of 
awakening a consciousness of sin and in preparing the way for the 
revelation of the one great sacrifice for sin. It is to be noted at the 
outset that the Hebrew conception of ceremonial cleanness and un- 
cleanness was by no means conterminous with that of sin and holi- 
ness. The symbolism was often in danger of being mistaken for the 
thing symbolized ; but in the representations of the Scriptures they 
were kept invariably apart, Being clean in a ceremonial sense, ac- 
cording to them, indicated simply a state of fitness to be in a certain 
place and to participate in certain privileges ; in other words, that 
one was in good standing as a member of the Jewish communion. 
It was otherwise in some ancient religions, as, for instance, the Zend, 
which showed no capacity thus sharply to distinguish between the 
real and the apparent. 

It is proper to remark also that the Levitical codes do not con- 
found ceremonial with mere physical cleanness, although water 
played an important part in the rites of purification. They had 
only this in common, that the one was regarded as becoming in a per- 
son's intercourse with God, as was the other in his intercourse with 
men. As it would have been a mark of disrespect to appear in the 
presence of an earthly king with an untidy person or a disordered 
dress, so it was regarded as derogatory to the majesty and purity of 
Jehovah for one ceremonially unclean — a state symbolical of moral 
uncleanness and to a certain extent synonymous with physical un- 
cleanness — to appear before him. Hence it was that, before entering 

M Sara. 15: 22. 2 Hos. 6:6. 3 Gal. 4:3,9; Col. 2:8, 20; cf. Matt. 15: 11, 17; Acts 10: 15; 
15:9. 

23 



354 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

upon any important public transaction in which Jehovah was espec- 
ially to have part, as in the giving of the law on Sinai, the people 
were commanded to sanctify themselves. 1 This included, besides 
certain forms of abstinence, the bathing of their persons and wash- 
ing of their garments. How closely associated ceremonial cleanness 
was with cleanliness is even more strikingly seen in the case of the 
priests and Levites. They were required to bathe their persons not 
only at the time of their consecration, but it was regarded as a 
strictly necessary preparation for the daily sacrifices of the temple. 2 
It is well known that the later Jews made extravagant applications 
of the Mosaic laws respecting purifications, besides adding largely 
to them. How our Lord regarded all such works of supererogation 
may be learned from his rebuke of a Pharisee who had blamed him 
for not observing them. 3 

25. Three classes of ceremonial impurities required animal sacri- 
fices as a means for their removal : that arising from contact with 
the dead of men or animals ; that from leprosy in men, houses or 
clothing; and that caused by tlie morbid fluxes of the human body. 
In all these cases that from which purification was really sought was 
the corruption induced by death in some of its forms or symptoms.* 
When viewed in this light the matter assumes a far more serious 
aspect than when, as superficially treated by some, it is looked upon 
as a social, sanitary or merely ecclesiastical arrangement of the Jew- 
ish priesthood. It was for this reason, doubtless, that the defilement 
caused by coming in contact with a dead body was regarded as the 
worst of all, and that the ceremony appointed to relieve from it was 
of so peculiarly solemn a nature. This species of defilement lasted 
seven days. It extended not alone to persons who had actually 
touched a corpse, but to the place where it had lain, to open vessels 
in the vicinity, to those entering such places, even to such as partook 
of a feast for the dead, or touched the grave or bone of a dead per- 
son in the field. 5 Moreover, those becoming thus unclean commun- 
icated their uncleanness to everything they touched. 

26. Purification in cases of this sort was effected by the ceremony 
of sprinkling with water which had been mingled with the ashes of 
a red heifer burned as a sin offering " without the camp." The 
sprinkling in the case of unclean persons took place on the third and 
seventh days of their uncleanness. At the latter period they were 
to bathe and wash their clothing in water. In the case of vessels 

i Ex. 19 : 10, 14, 15. 2 Ex. 29 : 4; 40 : 12; Lev. 8 : G. 3 Luke 11 : 37-40. * Gen. 2: 17. 
6 Num. 19 : 11-1G, 18, 22 ; 31 : 19. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 355 

one sprinkling, combined with washing, was sufficient. The cer- 
emony as originally appointed is described in detail in Numbers 19 : 
1-22. AVhy the ashes of a red heifer were required it is not possible 
to say with certainty. It may have been simply to enhance the 
symbolical import of the rite as a sin offering, red being the color 
of blood. According to the Mishna two white or black hairs spring- 
ing from the same follicle rendered the animal unfit. As in other 
sacrifices, the animal was to be without blemish, one that had never 
borne the yoke, and, as later custom demanded, between the years 
of one and five. The cedar wood, hyssop and scarlet used for the 
sprinkling had each a symbolical meaning. They formed together a 
sort of brush, the stick of cedar serving as the handle, and the scarlet 
wool being used to bind the twigs of hyssop upon it. 

The ashes of one heifer, as thus used, lasted a long time. It was 
a tradition of the Jews that not more than nine had been necessary 
from the days of Moses. It being a public necessity, the expense 
of it was borne by the temple treasury. In the light of these facts, 
it is with new interest that one reads the references to this ceremony 
found in the epistle to the Hebrews : " For if the blood of goats and 
bulls, and the ashes of a heifer sprinkling them that have been de- 
filed, sanctify unto the cleanness of the flesh : how much more shall 
the blood of Christ, who through the eternal Spirit offered himself 
without blemish unto God, cleanse your conscience from dead works 
to serve the living God ?" In the case of persons who had become 
unclean by coming in contact with the carcass of an animal, the dis- 
ability lasted but for a single day. Washing the garments was a 
necessary condition for its removal. 1 Things which had been thus 
defiled were also cleansed with water, excepting earthenware, which 
was broken. 

27. The second species of ceremonial defilement was that arising 
from the leprosy. The law concerning it is given at length in Le- 
viticus, chapters 13 and 14. Leprosy was understood to defile not 
only the person afflicted with it but any one touching him. If a per- 
son entered a house which had been pronounced leprous by the priest, 
he was made unclean thereby for one day. The rabbins reckoned 
the leper as among the dead. This thought also appears in the 
prayer offered by Aaron for Miriam when so visited by a special 
providence : " Let her not, I pray, be as one dead, of whom 
the flesh is half consumed when he cometh out of his mother's 
womb." 2 The law regulating intercourse with others under these 

i Lev. 11 : 24, 32, 33, 40. 2 Num. 12 : 12. 



356 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



circumstances was of the strictest character. A person who had 
been officially pronounced a leper was obliged to go about with his 
clothes rent, his hair loose, his upper lip covered, and on the ap- 
proach of any one to cry out, l: Unclean, unclean." His dwelling- 
place was to be alone and " without the camp." The last expression 
was understood by the later Jews to mean, in the case of walled 
towns, outside the walls. On pain of forty stripes the leper was 
forbidden to go beyond the bounds set for him. He was admitted, 

however, to a cer- 
tain portion of the 
syuagogue on con- 
dition of his enter- 
ing it and going 
from it at a different 
hour from the rest 
of the congregation. 
Thus excluded from 
the society of others 
he naturally sought 
it in the company of 
those afflicted like 
himself 1 

The question 
whether persons or 
things were actu- 
ally affected by the 
leprosy was left to 
the decision of the 
priests. Regulations of the most minute character concerning the 
matter, in addition to those of Leviticus, are to be found in one of the 
tracts of the Talmud. The process of purification was as follows: — 
Persons or things showing symptoms of the disease, but authorita- 
tively pronounced free from it, were cleansed by washing in water. 
Garments found to be really infected with it were burnt, and houses 
torn down. A leprous person who had recovered and been declared 
convalescent by a priest was required to present himself at the en- 
trance of the camp, or the gates of the city, for the rites of purifica- 
tion. They consisted of two stages, and lasted altogether seven days. 
First, the candidate brought to the priest two ceremonially-clean 
birds ; the rabbins say sparrows were generally used for the purpose. 

12 Kings 7: 3; Luke 17 : 12. 




Purification of the Leper. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 357 

One of the birds was killed and its blood caught in a vessel in which 
was "living water." The other bird was dipped into this liquid along 
with cedar wood, hyssop and the crimson thread which bound the 
two together. With this bunch of hyssop the leper was sprinkled, 
whereupon the living bird was loosed to fly away. Finally, the 
leper washed his clothing, shaved off all the hair of his body, and 
bathed his person. 

The second stage of the ceremony began on the seventh day, until 
which time the leper was not allowed to return to his family. Now 
he appeared at the sanctuary. Again his clothing was washed and 
his body bathed and shaven. On the eighth day he brought the 
appointed sacrifices, consisting of two male lambs as a burnt and 
trespass offering, respectively, and a ewe lamb as a sin offering. The 
burnt offering was accompanied by a meal offering. In case of 
poverty he might bring, in place of the lambs, two turtle-doves or 
two young pigeons. A log of oil — less than a pint — was also re- 
quired in the ceremony, the leper being anointed with it, as also with 
the blood of the trespass offering, on the tip of his right ear, the 
thumb of his right hand and the toe of his right foot, while a por- 
tion of it was poured on his head. There can be little doubt that 
the Psalmist refers to this impressive ceremony when he says, " Purge 
me with hyssop and I shall be clean ;" * and a new significance is given, 
in view of it, to the numerous references that occur in the Gospels. 2 

28. The third species of ceremonial defilement was that arising 
from morbid fluxes of the sexual organs. These, too, were looked 
upon as the more or less remote results of death. They were clear 
disturbances of natural functions. Such disturbances, as the con- 
sequence of sin, were regarded as having not simply a physical, but 
also a quasi moral, quality. Hence the necessity of ceremonial 
purification, especially in connection with that part of man's phys- 
ical nature where he was most, exposed to sin. The mere act of 
giving birth, or the normal and legalized communion of the sexes, 
are nowhere represented in the Scriptures as evil. It is certain 
that the accompanying conditions, what were abnormal and sickly, 
were so treated. Gonorrhoea not only rendered the person afflicted 
with it unclean, but, for a more limited time, whatever such person 
came in contact with or spit upon. 3 The same was true of invol- 
untary nocturnal emissions. It has been thought by some that, 
under Levitical law, ordinary conjugal intercourse also rendered 
ceremonially unclean. This was the opinion of the later Jews. But 

i Ps. 51 : 7. 2 Matt. 8:2; 10:8; 11 :5; 26 :6; Mark 1 : 40 ; Luke 17 : 12. 3 Lev. 15 : 1-12. 



358 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

the original phrase rendered "with whom" 1 means here, it would 
seem, " beside whom," as in Leviticus 15 : 24, where the former mean- 
ing appears to be excluded by 20 : 18. Other passages quoted in 
support of the contrary view, when correctly interpreted are not 
found to be really so. 2 

A woman's monthly sickness rendered her unclean for seven days, 
and whatever she touched was made unclean until the evening;. 3 The 
husband who lay beside his wife was subject to the same disability. 
If the bloody flux continued and assumed the form of a disease, the 
ceremonial impurity lasted as long as the sickness. This seems to 
have been the trouble from which the woman suffered who is spoken 
of in the Gospels. 4 The purification enjoined in the last-mentioned 
cases were of a simple character. A man or woman having an issue 
was required, when it ceased, after waiting seven days, to wash the 
garments and bathe the body in living water. For a sacrifice there 
were brought on the eighth day two turtle-doves or young pigeons, 
one of which 'was offered as a sin offering, the other as a burnt offer- 
ing. Those indirectly affected were required simply to bathe their 
bodies and wash their clothing. Vessels involved, if of wood, were 
cleansed with water; if of earthen ware, were broken. The un- 
cleanness induced by nocturnal emissions could be cleansed after 
the lapse of a day by a bath and washing the soiled clothing. 

In the case of childbirth the ritual of purification was more elab- 
orate. 5 The woman was held to be ceremonially unclean for forty 
or eighty days, according as she had borne a male or a female child. 
At the expiration of this period she brought to the sanctuary a 
turtle-dove or young pigeon, as a sin offering, and for a burnt offer- 
ing a lamb of one year old. If too poor to provide a lamb she was 
permitted to bring a dove or young pigeon in its place. It will be 
recalled that the mother of our Lord availed herself of this privi- 
lege when she came to present him in the temple. 6 It was on this 
occasion, too, that the devout Simeon took the babe in his arms and 
exclaimed, "Now lettest thou thy servant depart, O Lord, according 
to thy word, in peace; for mine eyes have seen thy salvation." 7 

29. Religious Vow t s. — In one of their two principal classes of 
positive and negative vows, the religious vows of the Israelites held 
an intimate relation to the Levitical system of sacrifices. A positive 
vow was one in which some designated object or person was dedicated 
to Jehovah. A negative vow was one of abstinence from certain de- 

i Lev. 15 : 18. 2 Ex. 19 : 15 ; 1 Sam. 21 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 11:4; 1 Cor. 7:5. 3 Lev. 15 : 19-24. 

4 Matt. 9 : 20-22. 5 Lev. 12 : 1-8. 6 Luke 2 : 22-24. < Luke 2 : 29. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 359 

fined privileges or enjoyments for the alleged purpose of doing honor 
to Jehovah. These two species of vows are distinguished by different 
words in the Hebrew. The first vow of which we have record in the 
Scriptures, that of Jacob at Bethel, was one of the former class. 1 
The vow of the Nazarite was one of the latter. 

Vows are nowhere enjoined, they are simply recognized and reg- 
ulated, in the Bible. The Levitical law concerning them was made, 
and apparently with design, an appendix to the main body of Levit- 
ical laws. 2 It had to do simply with a prevailing custom. It was 
something which could scarcely be looked upon as a constituent part 
of the Israelitish religion. The Mosaic laws in the main concerned 
themselves with what Jehovah required or forbade. Vows had re- 
lation to that which, outside these laws, one voluntarily took upon 
himself. But though a person might venture beyond the positive 
requirements of the sinaitic code, it was certainly wise to make pro- 
vision that in no case should he find himself outside its regulative 
precepts. 

30. Accordingly we find the matter incidentally treated in the 
Pentateuch, and always in harmony with its own fundamental prin- 
ciples. If, for example, one had made a vow he was held to be 
legally bound to discharge it to the letter. 3 It was not at his option, 
moreover, in making a vow to disregard prior and more imperative 
obligations. He might not assume to devote anything to Jehovah 
in the way of a vow which the law already demanded of him, nor 
anything not properly his own. This was a perversion of right prin- 
ciples which our Lord denounced. In his time children, in plain 
disregard of the fifth commandment, were accustomed to evade the 
duty of supporting their parents by saying that the means necessary 
for it had been devoted to God.* In the case of unmarried daugh- 
ters, as also of married women, the validity of a vow was made de- 
pendent on the consent of father or husband. They were obliged, 
however, to object, if at all, at once on hearing of the matter. A 
vow to have legal force must be freely made, made audibly, and, 
where others were concerned, in their presence. 5 According to rab- 
binical law one might not dedicate a portion which on the contin- 
gency of his death would fall to his widow ; or, in vows of abstinence, 
pledge himself to anything which interfered with the preservation 
of life or the rights of those dependent on him. Outside of these 
limitations, and two others named in Deuteronomy 23 : 18, a person 

> Gen. 28 : 20-22. 2 Lev. 27 : 1-33 ; cf. Lev. 26 : 46. 3 Num. 30 : 2 ; Deut. 23 : 21-23. * Matt. 
15 : 4-6. 5 j; urn. 30 : 3-12. 



360 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

was at liberty to present to the Lord any article of property, an- 
imals clean and unclean, houses and lands (until the year of jubilee), 
and even himself, his wife, his children and servants. 

31. Inasmuch as such presentation, excepting only animals which 
could be sacrificed, was necessarily formal rather than literal, the 
objects might be redeemed by the giver by paying into the treasury 
of the sanctuary a sum amounting to one fifth more than their esti- 
mated value. For men from twenty to sixty years of age the price 
for redemption was fifty shekels ; for women of the same age, thirty 
shekels. Between the ages of five and twenty the price was twenty 
shekels for men and one half that for women. From the age of 
one month to five years the price of redemption was five shekels for 
a male and three for a female ; for those over sixty the price was 
fifteen shekels for a male and ten for a female. The priest was 
at liberty, however, in cases of poverty to accept a much smaller 
sum. 1 

"Unclean animals were either redeemed by adding a fifth to their 
appraisement or sold at that valuation and the money paid to the 
sanctuary. Houses and lands were treated in the same way ; the 
estimated products of the latter before the year of jubilee being, how- 
ever, alone exchangeable. If one subsequently sold land which he 
had dedicated to Jehovah, the buyer remained in possession until 
the year of jubilee ; the land was then forfeited to the sanctuary and 
could not be redeemed. On the other hand, if one bought a piece 
of land and dedicated the same to Jehovah, he was at liberty to 
redeem it provided he did so at once. In any case, in the year of 
jubilee it reverted to the original owner or his family. 2 The form 
of -positive vow known as cherem, a term applied to objects placed 
under a ban, has already been noticed. Other notable instances of 
positive vows mentioned in the Scriptures, in addition to that of 
Jacob, are the tragic one of Jephthah, that of Hannah, and those of 
the sailors who threw overboard the prophet Jonah. 3 Examples of 
negative vows are those of Samson, the prophet Samuel, and John 
the Baptist ; all of whom were Nazarites. 

32. The Nazarite. — The Levitical law relating to Nazarites 
presupposes their existence as a class. 4 It contemplates, as in the 
cases just noted, nothing more than to regulate customs so as to make 
them conform to what was fundamental in the Israelitish religion. 
As the name in the Hebrew implies, the Nazarite was a dedicated 

' Lev. 27 : 11-27, 33. "- Lev. 27 : 20, 22-24. 3 j u dg. n : ; W _4 , l Sam. 1:11; Jon. 1 : 16. 

* Num. 6:1-21. 



SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 361 

person, separated, for the time being, in a special sense unto Jehovah. 
One had power not only to become himself a Nazarite, but parents 
could bind their children to his rules of abstinence. Besides a height- 
ening of the ordinary obligations of life, the Nazarite was especially 
bound to two things : to abstain, for a time or for his entire life, from 
wine and strong drink and from cutting the hair. The former par- 
ticular was what essentially characterized the class; the latter was 
a kind of badge of it. What his regalia was to the priest, that his 
flowing locks were to the Nazarite. He w r as, in fact, looked upon as 
a sort of priest whose obligations were the more sacred that they were 
self-imposed and did not come by inheritance. 

Abstinence from the fruit of the vine was absolute. It extended 
"from the kernels even to the husk." 1 If, however, the Nazarite's 
obligation had ended with this, he would have been only so far a 
Rechabite. The Reehabites were prohibited the use of wine along 
with the building of houses and the cultivation of land. But with 
the Nazarite the unchecked growth of the hair was a second distinc- 
tion. In the later time, along with other perversions, it became the 
chief distinction. The Levitical law was so interpreted that other 
wines than grape wine and other kinds of spirituous liquors were 
allowed to the Nazarite ; but not even a comb might touch his hair. 
A distinction, however, was made in this respect between what was 
called "a Samson Nazarite" and "a perpetual Nazarite." The 
former was permitted, on certain conditions, to clip his hair and 
defile himself by the dead. But the concession was probably more 
theoretical than practical, and arose from an effort to justify the 
otherwise illegal conduct of Samson. As already intimated, the vow 
of the Nazarite was for a limited period or for life. By rabbinical 
law it could not be* for a less period than thirty days. If no period 
were stated, the shortest allowable was understood. In case of defile- 
ment by coming in contact with a dead body, even of the nearest 
relative, the Nazarite was obligated anew for the whole period, if it 
had been limited, and in all cases to special rites of purification. 2 
In talmudical times willful transgression of the Nazarite's vow was 
punishable with stripes. 

33. The ceremonies at the expiration of the period were of a 
peculiar character. 3 They took place at the door of the sanctuary. 
First, a male lamb of the first year was brought as a burnt offering, 
a ewe lamb of the first year as a sin offering, and a ram as a peace 
offering. All must be without blemish. In connection with the first 

i Num. 6:4. 2 Num. 6 : 9-12. 3 Num. 6 : 13-21. 



362 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

there were to be provided also appropriate meal and drink offerings, 
besides a basket of unleavened bread, cakes of fine flour mingled 
with oil, and unleavened wafers similarly treated. According to 
rabbinical practice the unleavened bread was baked in the form of 
ten cakes and ten wafers, with which one fourth of a log of oil was 
used. The whole was offered in one basket. During the later his- 
tory of the second temple there was a special room reserved for Naz- 
arites in the so-called court of the women. At the conclusion of the 
above-named sacrifices in his behalf, the Nazarite went to this cham- 
ber, kindled a fire, cooked the portions of the peace offering remain- 
ing, and burned the hair of his head. In the original legislation 
the burning of the hair was appointed to be done at the door of the 
tabernacle. In later usage it was permitted to cut it previous to the 
Nazarite's appearing at the sanctuary for the rites of purification ; 
but it was regarded as essential that it should be consumed there. 
This may throw some light on the conduct of Paul, who is said to 
have shorn his head at Cenchrese because he had a vow. 1 It might 
have been so if he had previously taken the vow of the Nazarite 
and had there reached its limit. Following this ceremony, the priest 
waved the boiled shoulder of the peace offering together with one 
unleavened wafer and one unleavened cake, putting his hands for the 
purpose beneath those of the Nazarite. The remaining bread and 
flesh, after those portions to which the priest was legally entitled had 
been given to him, were then eaten by the Nazarite and his friends. 
There is an intimation in the law that when the Nazarite was able 
so to do he brought other offerings of his free will besides those men- 
tioned. 2 As was natural to expect, an institution of this kind was liable 
to great abuses. One such was making a merit of being a Nazarite, 
an evil, moreover, against which the law had, in some particulars, pro- 
vided. 3 The class seem to have been very common at the beginning 
of our era and shortly after, and they were supposed to be able to trans- 
fer the merit obtained from their abstinence to others. Hence persons 
often shared with them the expense attendant on their absolution, with 
the understanding that they shared also in their good works. It is 
related of King Agrippa that he once did this in order to propitiate 
public favor. 4 On the other hand, the object Paul had in view, in 
assuming on one occasion the charges of four impoverished Christian 
Nazarites, is said to have been the eminently worthy one of conciliat- 
ing Jewish brethren who were extremely "zealous for the law." 5 

i Acts 18 :18. 2 Num. 6 : 21. 3 Lev. 27 : 9, 10 ; cf. Pro v. 22 : 26, 27. •* Joscphus, Antiq. 19, 
6:1. & Acts 21 : 23, 24. 



CHAPTER XV. 

FORMS OF IDOLATRY NOTICED IN THE BIBLE. 

1. The origin of idolatry is a question much discussed. Those 
who accept the hypothesis of a purely natural development of the 
Israelitish religion generally hold that monotheism was a somewhat 
late development from polytheism, the latter, according to them, 
being the original form of religion among men. From a deification 
of the objects of nature there was a gradual advancement, especially 
forwarded by the prophets, to the conception of a supreme Being, 
who is Creator, Preserver and Governor. It is needless to say that 
this is not the teaching of the Bible, from which we get all the in- 
formation that we have on the subject. It teaches that God created 
man in his own moral image and with a knowledge of himself as the 
one God. Whatever else may be meant by the " tree of knowledge 
of good and evil" and man's relations to it, it certainly implies an 
original state of innocence in which obedience to God was regarded 
as the highest duty and intelligent, childlike communion with him 
as the highest boon. That the temptation and fall of man were his- 
toric facts, and that it was this original lapse from God which lay at 
the basis of all his subsequent sin and misery, the Bible everywhere 
assumes. Knowing God, men " glorified him not as God, neither 
gave thanks ; but became vain in their reasonings, and their sense- 
less heart w T as darkened." 1 

/ Idolatry arose from the attempt of fallen man to form, first in- 
wardly then outwardly, a conception of the invisible God. Origin- 
ally the human soul itself reflected the divine image. As long as it 
w T as unfallen the worship of more than the one God was impossible. 
When that image was defaced and man's " senseless heart was dark- 
ened," polytheism and idolatry were sooner or later inevitable. Ac- 
cordingly, to keep alive a knowledge of the one God, his being and 
claims, a revelation was needful. That revelation is given in the 
Scriptures. The best results of archaeological research confirm the 
teachings of the Bible that monotheism was an original possession 
of man, and that in the history of the patriarchs, from Adam to 
Noah and from Noah to Abraham, we have a true account of the 
manner in which the primitive religion was preserved and transmit- 

i Rom. 1 : 21. 

363 



364 



SACKED ANTIQUITIES. 



A 



ted in the early times. It is no sufficient objection to this represent- 
ation to say that the people of Israel showed for so long a time a 
powerful tendeucy toward polytheism, at least toward worship by 
means of images. There are examples enough of such a tendency 
in human history to fall away from a higher to a lower intellectual 
and spiritual plane. There are few instances where peoples have 
risen from a lower to a higher stage of intellectual and moral cul- 
ture ; none at all of their emergence from polytheism to the worship 
of one God, except as that God first interposed to provide the requi- 
site impulse and to direct the consequent development. 

2. The Teraphim. — The first form of idolatrous worship of which 
the Bible gives us any information is that by the use of teraphim. 
It was practiced by the ancestors of Abraham. 1 It 
is a singular fact that it was also the last form of 
idolatry to which the people of Israel clung after 
their return from the Babylonian exile. 2 The ter- 
aphim seem to have been images having the form of 
a man, though not always of his full size. 3 Their 
name would indicate that they were looked upon as 
having to do with the support of life, aud they ap- 
pear to have served simply as household gods, like 
the penates of the ancient Romans. The word is 
always found in the plural. This probably indicates 
not a plurality of images, or a plurality of deities ; 
but like Elohim, the Hebrew w r ord for God, either a 
combination of divine attributes, or it is the so-called 
plural of eminence. 

There is no evidence that before the time of the 
Teraphim. judges the teraphim were ever consulted as oracles. 4 
Subsequently, however, this form of idolatry seems not to have been 
altogether unknown in Israel. 5 From the prophet Ezekiel it is 
learned that the Babylonians were familiar with it. He says in one 
place, " For the king of Babylon stood at the parting of the way, at 
the head of the two ways, to use divination: he shook the arrows to 
and fro, he consulted the teraphim, he looked in the liver." There 
is no evidence that the teraphim were ever directly worshipped. La- 
ban, like his ancestors, was acquainted with the true God. The same, 
no doubt, was true of the Micah mentioned in the book of Judges. It 
is safe to infer, therefore, that, at least among the Israelites, their 




l Josh. 24 : 2, 11; of. Gen. 31 : 10, 53 (margin) ; 35 : 2. = Zech. 10 : 2. 
19:13,14. 4Judg. 17:5. 6 Hos. 3 : 4. 6 Ezek.21 ; 21. 



Gen. 31:34; 1 Sam. 




FORMS OF IDOLATRY NOTICED IN THE BIBLE. 365 

use was a corruption of the true religion rather than an abandon- 
ment of it. Divine aid was sought by this means. It is clear, too, 
that there was always a strong public sentiment against this perver- 
sion of the worship of Jehovah. 1 

3. The Golden Calf. — Another form of idolatrous worship ^ 
practiced by the Israelites was that of the golden calf. "The first 
time that it is mentioned in the Bible is during the Israelitish so- 
journ at Mount Sinai. 2 On account of the long absence of Moses 
and the consequent withdrawal of the visible presence of 
Jehovah in the pillar of cloud, the people lost heart and 
said to Aaron, " Up, make us gods, which shall go be- 
fore us ; for as for this Moses, the 
man that brought us up out of the 
land of Egypt, we know not what is 
become of him." In compliance with 
this demand Aaron prepared from 
the golden ornaments of the people 
a "molten calf," fashioning it with 
a " graving tool." Judging from the 

language used and from what is Bronze Figure of the Egyptian Apis or 

known was the later custom in like Bul1 - (WUMnson.) 

cases, it is to be inferred that the image was made of wood and cov- 
ered over with plates of gold which had been cast for the purpose. 
The people accepted the image as a representative of Jehovah who 
had brought them out of Egypt, and Aaron had an altar built, and 
allowed burnt offerings and peace offerings to be brought before it. 

It has been generally supposed that the idea of such an image was 
suggested by what was known of Egyptian idolatry, live bulls being 
worshipped in Egypt : one under the name of Apis at Memphis, and 
another under the name of Mnevis at Heliopolis. This is extremely 
improbable, for many reasons. In that case one might have expected 
that they would take a live animal instead of the image of one. 
Moreover, there is no evidence that out of Egypt the Israelites ever 
showed any tendency to adopt Egyptian idolatrous usages. 3 It 
w T ould, least of all, have been expected of them at this time. It is 
more likely that the image, while called a calf, really had the form 
of a cherub so common in the East, especially in the land from 
which the Israelites originally came. The cherub had the body of 
a bull but the head of a man. It was also provided w T ith wings. 
Of such an image as this, with which, it is probable, they had always 

1 Gen. 35: 2. 2 Ex. 32:1-G. a j os h. 24:14: Ezek. 20:8; 22:3. 




366 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

been familiar, it is easier to think of its being said, " These be thy 
gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt." 
The destruction of the image by Moses and the judgment visited upon 
the people in consequence of it did not prevent a recurrence of this 
form of idolatry at a later period. After the division of the king- 
dom, Jeroboam, though perhaps with more of a political than a re- 
ligious aim, made two calves of gold, setting up one in Bethel and 

the other in Dan. And to the in- 
habitants of the northern king- 
dom he said, " It is too much 
for you to go up to Jerusalem ; 
behold thy gods, O Israel, which 
brought thee up out of the land 
of Egypt." 1 As in the first in- 
stance, it is probable that Jero- 
boam simply meant to offer the 
people a visible representative 

The Egyptian Gryphon. of J ellovah . but> ag in the firgt 

instance, the unwarranted and forbidden device was the source of 
incalculable evil to Israel. 

4. The High Places. — A third form of illegal ized worship in 
the earlier times was that of the " high places." Originally this term 
was applied to hill-tops which were favorite spots for offering sacri- 
fices; but later it came to have, in biblical language, a technical 
meaning, referring to worship at forbidden places instead of that 
enjoined at the sanctuary. During the patriarchal period worship 
w T as offered when and where occasion called for it, especially where 
there had been a theophany or God had definitely appointed it. 
Elevated places were not excluded, neither were they exclusively 
chosen. In the sinaitic legislation, however, a law was given which 
enjoined sacrifice at one central altar only, or at such other places 
as God by special revelation might indicate. Doubtless the object 
of the law was to prevent Israel from doing what the surrounding 
heathen nations, the Moabites and Canaan ites, were accustomed to 
do, and to secure unity and purity of worship. There is abundant 
evidence in subsequent history that this statute was not very faith- 
fully kept ; but there is no sufficient evidence that, as some have 
alleged, even for the mass of the people much less for the leaders, 
it had no existence, or that it was understood in a different sense 
from the one explained. 

i 1 Kings 12 : 28. 



FORMS OF IDOLATRY NOTICED IX THE BIBLE. 3G7 

Exceptions to its observance are generally characterized as such 
in the Scriptures, and are never spoken of with approval. 1 Solomon, 
for example, is said to have erected a high place to Chemosh ; but 
in the same breath it is called the "abomination of Moab." 2 
For about a century, reckoning from the time when the ark was 
captured by the Philistines, this sacred object lost its historic and 
accustomed position. It was kept in a private house and furnished 
no place of public resort. During this anomalous period, as already 
noticed, Jehovah, for purposes of chastisement, withdrew from Is- 
rael, and the " tabernacle of Shiloh, the tent which he placed among 
men." 3 The people consequently returned, to a considerable extent, 
to the customs which ruled before the sinaitic law was given. Wor- 
ship on high places prevailed, though not to the extent that any one 
place more than another became a sanctuary. The worship at these 
places was by no means purely idolatrous. It was often conducted 
by Levitical priests, and nominally was the worship of Jehovah 
only. 4 After the reinstatement of the ark in its former position 
there was no worship of this kind, unless exceptionally offered and 
enjoined, like that of Elijah on Mount Carmel, which was not looked 
upon with disfavor by those who represented the best religion of 
Israel. The writer of the books of Kings is of one mind here with 
the writer of the books of Chronicles, as well as with all the poets 
and prophets of Israel whose works we have. There were good 
kings, like Asa and Jehoshaphat, who tolerated high places in their 
reigns ; but they were regarded as coming so far short of doing all 
that loyalty to Jehovah required of them. 5 

5. The Brazen Serpent. — During the sojourn in the wilder- 
ness Moses, at God's command, had a brazen serpent prepared as a 
means of restoring such as had been bitten by the deadly fiery ser- 
pents. The passage reads: "And Moses made a serpent of brass, 
and set it upon the standard : and it came to pass, that if a serpent 
had bitten any man, when he looked unto the serpent of brass, he 
lived." 6 This image was long preserved, probably in the tabernacle, 
and naturally was regarded with a reverence bordering on supersti- 
tion. Nothing, however, is heard of it until the reign of Hezekiah. 
Of him it is said, " He removed the high places, and brake the pil- 
lars, and cut down the Asherah : and he brake in pieces the brazen 
serpent that Moses had made ; for unto those days the children of 
Israel did burn incense to it ; and he called it Nehushtan," that is, 

iJudg. 8:27. *1 Kings 11: 7. 3 Ps. 78 : 58-60. 4 2 Chron. 33 : 17. 5 i Kings 15 : 14 ; 
18:36; 19:14; 22:43. 6Num.21:9; cf. John 3:14; 1 Cor. 10:9. 



07 



368 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

the brass thing. 1 Some, for -insufficient reasons, have supposed that 
the original brazen serpent was left in the wilderness, and that this 
one was introduced by Ahaz. It is more likely that from the wil- 
derness period it had continued to be, to some extent, an intermedi- 
ate object of worship, Jehovah being invoked through it. Whatever 
may have been true in this respect, the wise Hezekiah properly 
judged that its value as a relic was not sufficient to compensate for 
the harm it was likely to do in leading the people into idolatry. 

6. In the instances hitherto noticed idolatry has appeared in its 
mildest form, that is, in the form of divine worship through repre- 
sentative images. Jehovah might be the one worshipped in such 
cases or he might not. In any case, such worship had been strictly 
prohibited in the decalogue. The second commandment was always 
in more danger of being broken by Israel than the first. Both were 
continually and persistently transgressed during the first thousand 

years of their history. Peculiarly incon- 
sequent, accordingly, is the reasoning so 
common among a certain class of biblical 
critics who maintain that the failure to 
execute an alleged law is pretty con- 
clusive evidence that the supposed law 
was not yet in existence as statute law. 
That the decalogue forms a part of the 
earliest documents of the Bible is well- 
nigh universally conceded. 

Baal side ofa great Altar inlTemple 7 - BAAL.— The Worship of Baal Was a 

near Kunawat (Canatha), east of the far grosser departure from the right way 

than any hitherto noticed. Theteraphim, 
the brazen serpent and the symbolic cherubim, although illegal, might 
have been employed without the direct intention of renouncing loyalty 
to Jehovah. The same was true, in general, of worship at the high 
places. But to adopt rites of worship peculiar to heathenism and 
to employ them in the worship of a heathen deity was another thing. 
It is not to be denied that in the case of Israel the name Baal may 
have been sometimes used where Jehovah was meant ; but it was a 
kind of mixing of terms that was attended with the highest peril 
and most generally led to a total lapse from the true religion. The 
worship of Baal, under some one of his many names, was the most 
widespread of any throughout the East. He represented the powers 
of nature, especially of the sun. The most notable gods known to 

i 2 Kings 18 : 4. 




FORMS OF IDOLATRY NOTICED IN THE BIELE. 3G9 

the Phoenicians and Canaanites were Baal and Ashtoreth (plural, 
Ashtaroth), a female deity corresponding to him. Under the dif- 
ferent names of Phtah, Turn and Amun Ra, Baal was also honored 
in the several districts of Egypt. Besides the famous temple erected 
to him at Heliopolis in that land, there was another at Baalbek, in 
Coele-Syria. The oldest Akkadian hymns are addressed to Baal as 
the god of the sun. The word Bel, title of the principal deity of 
ancient Babylon, is likewise only another form of the name Baal. 
So, too, the title Molech (sometimes written Moloch, Milcom, Mal- 
com), the national divinity of the Ammonites, simply stood for Baal ; 
and the same is true of Chemosh, the abomination of the Moabites. 

Baal was regarded as a being having universal and absolute au- 
thority. His worship was almost exclusively inspired by fear. That 
of Ashtoreth, his counterpart, often degenerated into the grossest 
sensual indulgence. Baal was honored with the greatest pomp and 
the most ornate ceremonial. It is said in condemnation of King 
Ahab that he " reared up an altar for Baal in the house of Baal 
which he had built in Samaria." The images that served to repre- 
sent this god were often made in the human form, in which he ap- 
peared as a haughty monarch, sceptre in hand and clothed with all 
the insignia of power. Pillars also were erected to him to which the 
name chammanim, " sun images," was given. They are several times 
referred to in the Scriptures. 1 The ritual at his shrines consisted of 
sacrifices offered to him, including incense, dancing and wild revel- 
ling around his image. 2 His votaries sometimes so far lost control 
of themselves in their frenzy as to inflict the severest injuries upon 
their persons. 3 The monuments show that there was also a custom 
of carrying images of the god around in procession, while the people 
prostrated themselves in the dust before it. 4 Besides the ordinary 
animal sacrifices, game was brought to the altars of Baal, with the 
various grains and fruits, and especially cakes made from raisins. 
The offering of young children in his honor, both male and female, 
was considered particularly meritorious. 5 

The priests of Baal were also his prophets. They wore a peculiar 
official dress, for the preservation of which houses were erected. 6 
The first mention of this form of idolatry in Israel is during the 
period of the exodus. 7 Bitterly as the covenant people were punished 
on this occasion, it did not deter them from the same transgression 

1 Lev. 26 : 30 ; 2 Chron. 14 : 5 ; 34 : 4 ; Isa. 17:8; 27 : 9 ; Ezek. 6 : 4, 6. 2 Jer. 7:9; 11:13; 

32 : 29. 3 1 Kings 18 : 26-29 ; cf. 1 Kings 18 : 19. < Epist. of Jeremias, vs. 3-6. 5 Lev. 

18 : 21 ; 20 : 2-5 ; Hos. 3:1. «2 Kings 10 : 22. ? Num. 25 : 3 ; Deut. 4 : 3. 

24 



370 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



in times not long subsequent. 1 After the period of Samuel it was 
renounced for a time, but only to be taken up again with new zest 
under the kings of the divided kingdom. To what extent it w r as 
sometimes carried may be judged from the fact that eight hundred 
and fifty priests of Baal and Ashtoreth were maintained at the table 
of Jezebel. 2 

8. In two instances Baal is used in the Old Testament as the name 
of a man. 3 It is often found in compound words, either as the name 

of a place or person or to indicate some special 
feature of idolatrous worship. Baal-berith was 
the covenant-Baal, that is, not the one who 
watched over the sacreduess of covenants, but 
the one who entered into covenant with his vota- 
ries. 4 Baal-gad, a city mentioned in the book of 
Joshua, 5 probably derived its name from the fact 
that Baal was there honored as the god of fortune. 
Baal-zebub was the name which Baal bore in 
Ekron, one of the five cities of the Philistines. It 
means " Baal of the fly," or " lord of the fly." 
The expression seems not to have been used in de- 
rision, but to indicate that Baal's protection might 
Assyrianishtar the As- \> e invoked against the pest of insect life. 6 Baal- 

tarte of the Greeks and . , « , r , , T , 

Ashtoreth of the Phceni- peor is the name or the place where the Israel- 
cians - ites were first seduced to the worship of this god. 

The name is generally supposed to imply that the rites of worship in 
this instance were of a specially-licentious character. 7 The name 
Baal is found in the Bible uniformly joined with the article. In the 
Septuagint and the New Testament the article is sometimes found 
in the feminine gender. 8 In these cases it is not, as might be sup- 
posed, Ashtoreth that is referred to. The article rather belongs to a 
Hebrew word left out, meaning shame. So strong was the dislike 
among the later Jews for this species of idolatry that, instead of 
calling this idol " the Baal," it was called " the shame," and this 
word being feminine the word Baal itself was given the feminine 
article. When found with it, accordingly, the whole means "the 
shameful Baal." 

9. Ashtoreth. — As already observed, Ashtoreth was the female 
counterpart of Baal, the plural, Ashtaroth, being a plural of em- 




i Judg. 2 : 11-13 ; 6 : 25, 26 ; 8 : 33. 
8:33; 9:4. 5 j os h. 11:17; 12:7. 
Zeph. 1:4; Rom. 11:4. 



2 1 Kings 18 : 19. 3 i Chron. 5 : 5 ; 8 : 30. « Judg, 
e 2 Kings 1 : 2, 3, 1G. 'Num. 25:3. 8 Hos. 2:8; 



FORMS OF IDOLATRY NOTICED IN THE BIBLE. 371 

inence, or referring to the various modifications under which the idol 
was worshipped. Others hold that the plural is used for the ab- 
stract, that is, points to the abstract meaning of the word, and that 
there is no real difference of meaning between the singular and plural 
forms. In the earlier books of the Bible the plural alone is used. 
This goddess is one with the Ishtar of the Assyrian pantheon and 
Astarte of the Greeks and Romans. The word Asherah, falsely 
rendered "groves" in the " authorized " English version, is some- 
times used for the name of the goddess, as appears from Judges 3 : 7, 
where Baalim and Asheroth, the plural of Asherah, are used in paral- 
lelism. 1 Asherah, however, is ordinarily used to designate the image 
under which the goddess was worshipped. It was of wood, and had, 
apparently, the form of a tree whose branches perhaps had been 
trimmed so that there was a resemblance to the human figure. It is 
enjoined in Deuteronomy, " Thou shalt not plant thee an Asherah 
of any kind of tree beside the altar of the Lord thy God, which 
thou shalt make thee." 2 

The Bible says nothing of any image of this goddess in human 
form ; but she so appears on the Assyrian and other monuments. 
On the latter, the more usual representation of her is of a majestic 
crowned figure standing on the back of a lion. Prostitution both of 
men and women was one of the most common forms of offering made 
to Ashtoreth. 3 The prophet Jeremiah refers to this goddess under 
the title "queen of heaven." He says, 4 "The children gather wood, 
and the fathers kindle the fire, and the women knead the dough, to 
make cakes to the queen of heaven, and to pour out drink offerings 
unto other gods, that they may provoke me to anger." As Baal was 
the sun-god, so Ashtoreth was the corresponding moon-goddess. In 
Genesis 14 : 5 a city is spoken of by the name of Ashteroth-kar- 
naim — that is, Ashteroth of the two horns. The title refers to the 
figure of the goddess in which she appears with a crescent-moon 
upon her head. It is improbable that any radical distinction is to 
be made between the Ashtoreth of the Zidonians, w T hose worship 
Solomon introduced into Jerusalem, and the Syro-Phcenician idol of 
the same name. 5 Like Baal, the corresponding female idol was hon- 
ored under a great variety of names, with widely-dissimilar rites in 
different places and at different times. 

10. Chemosh. — Chemosh was the national god of the Moabites, 
and, as already remarked, is identified in general with Molech ' j 

< Cf. Judg. 6 : 28 ; 1 Kings 18 : 19 ; 2 Kings 23 : 4. 2 Deut. 16 : 21. 3 Deut. 23 : 17. 4 Jer. 
7:18; cf. 44 : 19. M Kings 11 : 5 ; cf. 1 Kings 16 : 32 ; 18:19. 



s 



372 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

and Baal. 1 On the Moabite Stone this idol is recognized as the one 
through whom calamit3 r had come upon the people and by whose 
power deliverance from the Hebrews, if it came, was to be effected. 
The father of the king of Moab who had this inscription prepared 
was called Chemosh-gad in honor of the idol. That Chemosh and 
Molech were essentially the same god under two names appears from 
the fact that the Molech of the Ammonites is once directly called 
Chemosh ; 2 and while Solomon is said to have erected high places to 
the gods of the Moabites and Ammonites, as well as to Ashtoreth, 
the names only of Ashtoreth and Molech (Milcom) appear in the 
context. The worship of both these idols was accompanied by the 
most cruel and licentious rites. Human offerings were looked upon 
as especially pleasing to them. When Mesha king of Moab was 
defeated by the united forces of Judah and Israel, it is recorded of 
him that he offered up his son that " should have reigned in his 
stead" as a burnt offering. 3 The prophet Amos also charges the 
crime of human sacrifices upon the Moabites. 4 There are several 
specific injunctions in the Pentateuch against this form of idolatry, 
especially against passing children through the fire to Molech; 5 
and as it concerns the sensuality of the Moabitish idolatry, it is sig- 
nificant that the only other name given to Chemosh in the Old Tes- 
tament is Baal-peor. 6 Obscene figures of a female divinity corre- 
sponding to Chemosh, as Ashtoreth did to Baal, have been recently 
discovered in the land of Moab. On the brow of one is the inscrip- 
tion " Divinity of [sexual] association." 

11. Tammuz. — Tammuz was the supposed divinity for whom the 
prophet Ezekiel says he saw, in vision, Israelitish women weeping at 
the north gate of the temple in Jerusalem. 7 The word is found only 
in this passage ; and as the Targums and ancient versions, excepting 
the Vulgate, simply transfer without translating it, expositors have 
been left largely to conjecture concerning its meaning. The fact 
that it is also the post-exilian name of a month corresponding nearly 
to July added still more to the complexity of the problem. Jerome, 
Cyril of Alexandria and others identified Tammuz with the Phoe- 
nician Adonis. In a note on the passage in Ezekiel where the word 
occurs, Jerome explains that the name Tammuz was given to the 
month in which Adonis was slain, that being the time when he was 
first bewailed by the women and afterwards greeted by them with 
song as having come to life again. It is unlikely that originally 

l Num. 21:29; Jer. 48: 7, 18, 46. *Judg. 11:24. 3 2 Kings 3 : 27. * Amos 2:1. 6 Lev. 
18 : 21 ; 20 : 2-5 ; Deut. 12 : 31 ; 18 : 10. o Num. 25 : 1-9 ; cf. P.s. 10G : 28. 7 Ezek. 8 : 14. 



FORMS OF IDOLATRY NOTICED IN THE BIBLE. 373 

this was anything more than a conjecture, which in Jerome's time 
had become a tradition. The sole ground for the conjecture may 
have been that the women wept for Tammuz and that that was the 
name of a month. Possibly, however, Adon — that is, lord — may 
have been one of the titles given to Tammuz. This would have still 
more strongly suggested the Greek fable of Adonis. According to 
the best authorities, Tammuz is the name of an Assyrian and a Bab- 
ylonian deity of Akkadian origin. The word in its Assyrian form 
means " son of life," and in its original spelling — Dumuzi — is not 
very unlike its Hebrew derivative. 

12. Rimmon. — Rimmon was a Syrian divinity to whom a temple 
was erected in Damascus. As in the case of Tammuz, there is but 
one mention made of this god in the Bible. 1 Naaman's request of 
Elisha after his healing will be recalled : " In this thing the Lord 
pardon thy servant; when my master goeth into the house of Rim- 
mon to worship there, and he leaneth on ray hand, and I bow my- 
self in the house of Rimmon, . . . the Lord pardon thy servant in 
this thing." 2 Rimmon is doubtless the Assyrian Ramanu or JRam- 
manu whose name is found as that of a deity on the monuments. The 
word appears to have no connection with the Hebrew word for 
pomegranate, with which it has sometimes been associated. In As- 
syrian it means either " the exalted one" or, as derived from another 
root, " the thunderer." As a matter of fact the god Ramanu was 
the god of the air in the Assyrian and Babylonian pantheon, and 
sometimes was definitely named " the god of thunder and lightning." 

1 3. Dagon. — Dagon was. the national god of the Philistines. The 
name occurs several times in the biblical his- 
tory of Israel. 3 In form the idol was repre- 
sented with the hands and face of a man and 
the body of a fish. A female deity correspond- 
ing to him was called Atargatis. The word 
occurs in the Bible only in the apocryphal 
books of Maccabees; 4 but it is likely that it 
might properly be substituted for Ashtaroth in 
1 Samuel 31 : 10. Among the more famous T , he J ish -f?- ( f °?l B « s : 

® relief from Rhorsabad. Botla.) 

temples to Atargatis were those of Ascalon and 

Hierapolis. Another one, at Karnion, was destroyed by Judas the 
Maccabee. The fact that Karnion is the Ashteroth-karnaim of 
Genesis 14 : 5 suggests an essential harmony between the two deities 

12 Kings 5:18. 2 2 Kings 5:18. 3 j u dg. 16:23; 1 Sam. 5:2; 1 Mace. 10:83; 11:4, 

4 2 Mace. 12 : 26 ; cf. 1 Mace. 5 : 43, 44. 




? 



374 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



Ashtoreth and Atargatis. The latter word, in fact, is held by some 
critics to be the Aramaic form of the other ; but this is doubtful. 
Traces of the worship of Dagon are found among the Phoenicians as 
well as the Philistines. Originally, it would appear, both Dagon and 
Atargatis were honored as deities not alone on the coast of the Medi- 
terranean, but the latter, at least, in Syria also and the former through- 
out eastern Asia. On the Assyrian monuments the word Dagon 
appears as Dakan; on the Babylonian as Dagan. The monuments 
preserve also somewhat numerous representations 
of the idol, generally in the form described above. 
There were temples of Dagon at Gaza and Ashdod. 
The one at Ashdod was destroyed by Jonathan, 
one of the Maccabsean brothers. 

14. Nebo. — Nebo was the title of an idol named 
in connection with Bel or Baal in the prophecy of 
Isaiah. 1 In the Assyrian and Babylonian pan- 
theon he was the fifth in the list of planetary divin- 
ities, and corresponded both in name and alleged 
attributes with Hermes of the Greek and Mercury 
of the Roman mythology. He is described on the 
monuments as the "god of knowledge" and rec- 
ognized as the inventor of the wedge-shaped system 
of writing. His symbol was the wedge or arrow- 
head. He seems to have been much more honored 
among the Babylonians than the Assyrians. The 
Nebo. {From a statue proper names Nabonassar, Nabopolassar, Nebu- 

in the British Museum.) clmdnezzar and maDy otherg are compounds, with 

the word Nebo as one of the elements. The temple of Nebo at 
Borsippa was rebuilt by his devotee Nebuchadnezzar. Statues of 
the god have been found at Nineveh, and a fine example of one of 
them has been transported to London and may be seen, as appears 
above, in the British Museum. 

15. Remphan, etc. — Remphan (Revised Version, Rephan) is 
the name of an idol mentioned in the address of Stephen recorded 
in the Acts. 2 It is doubtless equivalent to the Chiun cf Amos 
5 : 26, and the one word may be a corruption of the other. Chiun 
is referred to by the prophet as having been honored by the Israel- 
ites as a god during their sojourn in the wilderness. As the mon- 
uments show, both names were used by the Assyrians and Babylo- 
nians as titles of the god Saturn, a planetary deity like Nebo. He 

i Isa. 46 ; 1. 2 Acts 7 : 43. 




FORMS OF IDOLATRY NOTICED IN THE BIBLE. 



375 



was honored as a fire-god, and human sacrifices were presented to 
him. The Assyrian Adrammelech, whom the Assyrian colonists 
from Sepharvaim in Samaria worshipped, is but another name 
for the same idol. The word means " Adar is king." In Babylo- 
nian and Assyrian the simple title Adar is used. Anammelech 
(" Anu is king") was another of the gods honored by the Sephar- 
vites. The statement that Anammelech represented the female 
power of the sun, as Adrammelech did the male power, is not borne 
out by the most recent investiga- 
tions. Anammelech, whose name 
is simply Anu on the monuments, 
was one of the three highest gods 
in the Babylonian pantheon after 
II, the other two being Bel and Nis- 
roch. Anu stood at the head of the 
triad. He had a female counterpart 
whose name was Anath. It has 
been supposed that this word ap- 
pears in certain proper names of 
the Old Testament. 1 

Other gods worshipped by Sa- 
maritan colonists were called sev- 
erally Succoth-benoth, Nergal, Ash- 
ima, Nibhaz and Tartak. The first 
named it is likely is the same as Zirbanith, who was honored in 
Babylon as the wife of Merodach. Nergal was the Assyrian and 
Babylonian god Nirgal. As a planetary divinity he represented 
Mars. Of Ashima nothing further is known. The same is true of 
Nibhaz and Tartak, unless the latter word be a form of Itak, which 
was the name of one of the gods of Assyria and Babylon. There 
were two idols worshipped by apostate Israelites in Babylon under 
the titles Gad and Meni. 2 In the revised English version the 
words have been translated, respectively, " Fortune" and " Destiny." 
Whether they are meant to represent distinct deities, or the words 
are to be taken in a more general sense, it is not possible to say with 
certainty. The fact that Baal was sometimes recognized as the god 
of fortune — Baal-gad — is significant. 

16. Jupiter and Mercury. — Jupiter (Greek, Zeus), the chief 
Olympian deity, is twice referred to in the New Testament. 3 Myth- 
ology represented him as at once the everlasting god of gods of whom 

i Josh. 15 : 59 ; 19 : 38 ; Judg. 1 : 33. 2 i sa . 65 : 11. s Acts 14 : 12 ; 19 : 35. 




Adrammelech. {From Nimn 
Layard.) 



After 



!% 



376 



SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 



it could be said, " Zeus was, Zeus is and Zeus shall be," and also, 
most inconsistently, as a being subject to the ordinary human pas- 
sions and necessities. It was not looked upon by the heathen as 
impossible, it would seem, even in the first century of our era, that 
their deities should appear among them. The reason why the in- 
habitants of Lystra thought especially of Jupiter and Mercury in 
connection with the miracle wrought by Barnabas and Paul is not 
far back. It was these two gods, as Ovid alleged, who had been 
entertained by Philemon, and Baucis his wife, in the neighboring 
Phrygia; while Jupiter was the tutelary divinity of Lydia, and 
divine worship was regularly paid to him there. 

On the same occasion on which Barnabas was superstitiously looked 
upon as Jupiter, Paul was named Mercury, " because he was the chief 
speaker." Mercury (Greek, Hermes) in the Roman and Greek myth- 
ology was an incarnation of the divine intelligence. He was regarded 
as spokesman of the gods, especially of Jupiter. He was generally 
represented in art as a robust, bearded man, clothed with a mantle 
and his head covered with a travelling-cap. As the ideal of youthful 
strength and skill, his statue was frequently found in the ancient gym- 
nasiums. There occurs in 2 Maccabees 1 the expression "brought 
under a hat." The hat of Mercury is meant, 
and the expression implies initiation into 
the sports of the gymnasium, repudiated 
by the strict Jews as a heathen custom. 

17. Diana. — Diana was the goddess spec- 
ially honored at Ephesus, of which city she 
is represented as the patron divinity. A 
magnificent temple for her worship existed 
there in ancient times. It was centuries in 
building, and was looked upon as one of the 

Figure of the Temple of Diana. geven won( }ers of the world. The edifice 

{From an old Coin.) . , n „„ , . , , 

was burned B.C. dob. Or this temple and 
its enshrined goddess diminutive models were still made and sold 
in great numbers at the beginning of the Christian era. It was 
the fear that the success of Paul would interfere with this trade 
that led Demetrius the silversmith and others of his craft to op- 
pose the apostle's ministry. 2 Diana was looked upon as the moon' 
goddess, corresponding in general to the Greek Artemis, sister of 
Apollo and a favorite child of Zeus. In art she waa represented 
as a spotless maiden, of stately and beautiful form but of great mod- 




i 2 Mace. 4 : 12. 



2 Acts 19: 23-41. 



FORMS OF IDOLATRY NOTICED IN THE BIBLE. 377 

esty. Among the Ionian Greeks, notwithstanding her maidenly 
purity and chastity, she was regarded as the patron deity of chil- 
dren and of motherhood. Elsewhere she was held to be goddess of 
the chase as well as of the life of the earth generally, both vegetable 
and animal. In this case she was mostly honored by her votaries 
with invocations in the spring, her worship being accompanied with 
extravagant and fanatical rites. 

18. Magical Arts. — The practice of mngic was one of the most 
widespread forms of idolatry in the East in biblical times. The fact 
is strongly marked by the numerous laws in the Pentateuch concern- 
ing it. 1 There is not one of them that does not adjudge so funda- 
mental a departure from the principles of the theocracy as worthy 
of death. The different phases of the laws present a noticeable 
gradation in the emphasis they put upon the matter, that of Deuter- 
onomy being the fullest and most emphatic of all. In Exodus ref- 
erence is made only to the female magician. In Leviticus five dif- 
ferent sorts of magic come under consideration. Deuteronomy, while 
taking note of all these, adds the names of three other kinds, and 
says of the evil that it is an " abomination unto the Lord," and that 
"because of these abominations" Jehovah was now about to drive 
out the Canaanites before Israel. It enjoins, accordingly, that there 
shall not be found among the latter " one that useth divination, one 
that practiceth augury, or an enchanter, or a sorcerer, or a charmer, 
or a consulter with a familiar spirit, or a wizard, or a necromancer." 
These epithets presuppose a familiarity with what is known as the 
" black art" which is surprising. A brief notice of each of these 
several forms of magic, and of a few others mentioned elsewhere in 
the Bible, is all that can be here attempted. 

19. Divination is a generic term which covers all the others. The 
root underlying the word in Hebrew means to cut, divide, hence, 
figuratively, decide. It is only used in a bad sense in the Scriptures, 
and is never applied to the utterances or acts of the prophets of 
Jehovah. Augury is apparently used in Deuteronomy also in the 
general sense of any occult art. The original word means to act 
covertly, and hence to use magic, to conjure. It is, however, possible 
that it may come from another root which would imply that the con- 
jurer found his omens in the color, shape or movements of the clouds. 
An "enchanter," if we follow the root-meaning of the term, was one 
who whispered, hissed or, in other words, used the arts of divina- 
tion professionally. The word for serpent comes from the same root, 

i Ex. 22 : IS ; Lev. 19 : 26, 31 ; 20 : 6, 27 ; Deut. IS : 9-14. 



378 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

and it has been supposed by some that the form of divination re- 
ferred to is what is called ophiomancy or divination by means of ser- 
pents. But this is not its meaning in Genesis 44 : 5, where it is used 
of the divination said to have been practiced by Joseph. He is 
assumed to have used a cup for the purpose. Still there is evidence 
in the Scriptures that serpent-charming was not unknown. 1 

The term "sorcerer" seems also to be of a more or less general 
character. The original word means to mutter, and in one of the 
intensive forms of the verb, to mutter charms, practice magic. It is 
the same root-word that is used when the "sorcerers" and "magi- 
cians" of Egypt are spoken of as attempting to imitate Moses and 
Aaron " with their enchantments." 2 The " charmer" w r as one, liter- 
ally, who bound knots or charms. This was one of the most common 
devices of magicians. Numerous references to the use of the magic 
knot for exorcism and other purposes have been found on the mon- 
uments of the East. In a papyrus manuscript now in the British 
Museum power is ascribed to the book of which it once formed a 
part as follows : " This hidden book triumphs over enchantments, 
connects ligatures, prepares ties, destroys the (door) lock. Life and 
death proceed from it." 

The " consulter with a familiar spirit," according to the Hebrew, 
was an inquirer of an ob or python. The word ob meant originally 
a leathern bottle; then the belly of a conjurer in whom the python 
or conjuring spirit was supposed to dwell. It is also sometimes used 
for the spirit itself. Ventriloquism seems to have been employed by 
magicians of this sort to aid the deception and heighten the impres- 
sion they desired to make. This was the form of magic professed by 
the so-called " witch of Endor." She is called " mistress of an ob," 
that is, she was thought to have power over spirits, and even to 
awaken the dead. Undoubtedly, however, she w T as more surprised 
than Saul at the appearance of the prophet Samuel in response to 
her incantations. The "wizard" was, literally, the "knower" or 
wise man. He who could foretell the future above all others was 
naturally considered as the wise man. The " necromancer," as the 
word itself suggests, was one who was supposed to have power to 
commune with the spirits of the deceased, and by that means learn 
the secrets concealed from the living. 

20. A few other forms of divination are mentioned in the Old 
Testament. In Ezekiel, as noted above, it is said of the king of 
Babylon that he " stood at the parting of the ways, at the head of 

IPs. 58:4, 5; Jer. S: 17. 2 £ x . 7:11. 



FORMS OF IDOLATRY NOTICED IN THE BIBLE. 379 

the two ways, to use divination : he shook the arrows to and fro, he 
consulted the teraphim, he looked in the liver." 1 He wished to have 
it determined for him whether he should march against Jerusalem 
or Kabbah. Whether inscribed arrows were used as lots, or they 
were simply allowed to drop on the ground and to give in that way 
an indication of the supposed will of the unseen powers, it is not 
possible to say. The inspection of the entrails of sacrificial victims 
in order to discover supernatural intimations was very common. 
The liver was specially prized for this purpose. The prophet Hosea 
charges a peculiar form of superstition on the Israelites of his day. 
He says, speaking in the name of the Lord, " My people ask counsel 
at their stock, and their staff declareth unto them." 2 What is re- 
ferred to seems to have been a species of rhadomancy in which rods 
were allowed to fall, and the divine will, as was thought, was in- 
timated by the direction in which they fell. 

21. A noticeable thing in the scriptural treatment of all these 
diverse superstitions is that they are regarded as a class. The terms 
employed originally referred to distinct forms of superstitious arts. 
At the time when the Bible takes them up they have so far already 
developed what is at their basis that one term suffices to cover the 
most of them. To inquire of an ob, for example, indicated as well 
the rites of necromancy. The corrupt tree was one though it might 
have many branches. And, again, it is worth noticing that the 
Scriptures simply assume without argument the falseness and worth- 
lessness of all such methods of discovering future events and seek- 
ing protection from impending evils. They are characterized as 
abominations hateful to God and to be abstained from totally. The 
right of inquiry on such themes is not denied. The desire for more 
knowledge is not rebuked. In direct connection with the passage in 
Deuteronomy which has just been considered the promise is uttered, 
" The Lord thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet from the midst 
of thee, of thy brethren, like unto me ; unto him ye shall hearken." 3 

i Ezek. 21 : 21. 2 Hosea 4 : 12. 3 Deut. 18 : 15. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

SECTS AMONG THE JEWS. 

1. Judaism as a divinely-ordained system of civil and religious 
government had no place for and offered no encouragement to sect- 
arian division. Judaism as modified and developed under the influ- 
ence of the scribes was extremely favorable to it. Samaritanism 
was the only sect which arose before the exile, and its origin was 
in a political rather than a religious movement. Moreover, it was 
less a division among the Jews themselves than an excrescence 
from without which unsuccessfully attempted to fasten itself upon 
the Jewish polity. 

2. Samaritanism. — The name Samaritan is derived from the 
city of Samaria, the metropolis of the region inhabited by the Sa- 
maritans. It was situated in the midst of Palestine, west of the 
Jordan and about thirty miles directly north of Jerusalem. The 
district bearing the name was bounded on the north by Galilee and 
on the south by Judaea. In the time of our Lord it covered a space 
about forty miles square, being somewhat larger than the province 
of Galilee. The Bible informs us that in the place of the Israelites 
whom the king of Assyria deported from this region he brought men 
" from Babylon, and from Cuthah, and from Avva, and from Ha- 
math and Sepharvaim, and placed them in the cities of Samaria 
instead of the children of Israel : and they possessed Samaria, and 
dwelt in the cities thereof." 1 This language leads to the inference 
which the monuments confirm, that the number and variety of hea- 
then colonists was very great. They were able to "possess" Sama- 
ria and its cities. 

Led by their superstitious fears, these Babylonian colonists asked 
of the king of Babylon that they might be instructed in the religion 
of the Jews. He granted their request, and is said to have sent 
them an Israelitish priest from among the exiles in Babylon. 2 How 
small was the influence he exerted appears from the fact that the 
colonists kept up their idolatrous practices. " They feared the Lord, 
and served their own gods, after the manner of the nations from 
among whom they had been carried away." Wliat the priest spoken. 

i 2 Kings 17 : 24 ; cf. v. 6 and 18 : 11. 22 Kings 17 : 26, 27. 

330 



SECTS AMONG THE JEWS. 381 

of was unable to effect seems to have been brought about, to some 
degree, through the influence of the Israelites who continued to 
dwell in the land ; at least a marvellous change took place. There 
were no less than nine different nationalities represented among the 
colonists, 1 and they greatly outnumbered, it is likely, the original 
inhabitants left among them. Still, Samaritanism, which accepted 
the Pentateuch as its book of religion, developed institutions not so 
wholly unlike those of the Jews, and continues yet to exist, was the 
product of the strange amalgamation. 

3. On the return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile the Sa- 
maritans requested that they might join them in the erection of the 
temple at Jerusalem. For obvious reasons this was refused. At 
the same time a son-in-law of Sanballat, their "Horonite" leader, 
was banished from Jerusalem for refusing, being himself a Jew, to 
break off his connection by marriage with Sanballat. He was a 
grandson of Eliashib, the high priest, and w T as received by the 
Samaritans, who smarted under the rejection of their proposals, 
w r ith open arms. A rival temple w 7 as soon afterwards built on 
Mount Gerizim, and Manasseh, the exile from Jerusalem, was made 
its high priest. It was a bold undertaking, and it can only be 
ascribed to the high place the Samaritans ascribed to the Mosaic 
law that it succeeded so well. It was a very pertinent question in 
itself which the Samaritan woman put to our Lord at Jacob's well : 
"Our fathers worshipped in this mountain"; and ye say, that in 
Jerusalem is the place where men ought to worship." 2 The temple 
on Gerizim was destroyed by the Jews under John Hyrcanus B.C. 
135-105. The Romans were always disposed to treat the Samar- 
itans mildly ; but a revolt that occurred in the time of Vespasian 
was the occasion of the death of more than eleven thousand of them. 
Since a.d. 1517 they have been under Turkish rule. 

4. In belief the modern Samaritans are strict monotheists. They 
hold to a resurrection of the dead, a day of judgment and everlast- 
ing rewards and punishments. The Messiah, who, according to them, 
was to appear on earth six thousand years after the creation, is already 
secretly here. They look for speedy manifestations of his power in 
great political and moral revolutions, culminating in the universal 
conversion of men to the Samaritan faith. The last judgment they 
suppose will come seven thousand years after the creation. They 
observe the seven national feasts of the Jews, the passover with great 
solemnity. On the last day of it — that is, of the feast of unleav- 

1 Ezra 4:9. 2 j h n 4 . 2 Q. 



382 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

ened bread — they march in procession to Mount Gerizim. They 
keep the Sabbath also with great sacredness, and recognize the law 
of release on each seventh year and on the year of jubilee. Every 
male over twenty years of age pays a yearly tax equivalent to one 
half a shekel, a census being taken annually to determine their 
number. The rite of circumcision on the eighth day is also practiced. 

5. The language at present used by the Samaritans is the Arabic. 
The Hebrew, however, remains for them the sacred tongue, being 
that of the law. Their pronunciation of the Hebrew differs some- 
what from that of others, being characterized principally by the 
omission of the guttural sounds. The square letter in use for the 
Hebrew since the second century B.C. the Samaritans have never 
adopted. They employ one of their own which has a close resem- 
blance to the Phoenician. There is also a distinct Samaritan lan- 
guage in which there are some remains of ancient literature. Among 
them are what is known as the Samaritan Chronicle, or an unauthen- 
tic book of Joshua, and the Chronicles of Abul Fath. Neither of 
them arose, it is likely, before the thirteenth century of our era. 
They have, besides, ten prayer-books, two collections of hymns, 
fragments of commentaries on the Pentateuch, etc. The Samaritan 
Pentateuch is the Pentateuch according to the present Hebrew text, 
but appearing in the Samaritan character. It is of considerable 
value, though on the whole inferior to the Masoretic or usual Hebrew 
text. The so-called Samaritan version, on the other hand, is simply 
a translation of the Pentateuch into the Samaritan language. It 
arose after the beginning of the Christian era. A second version 
was made into Arabic in the eleventh or twelfth century. 

6. The Scribe. — The two factors most potent in the life of Israel 
before the exile were the priests and prophets. They were essen- 
tially one in their influence. The efforts made by some critics to 
show a marked antagonism between them as classes have not been 
successful. These two classes being in harmony, there was no occa- 
sion or encouragement, as already remarked, for sectarian divisions. 
The principal division which the Israelitish history shows in this 
period, excepting always tribal differences, is that between the more 
and the less faithful Israelites ; between the evil and the good as 
measured by the standard of the Mosaic laws. After the exile and 
the disappearance of prophetical activity the case was otherwise. 
In the place of the prophet there arose the scribe. At first he was 
nearly identical with the priest. In the gifted Ezra the offices were 
actually united. A little later, however, they gradually separated 



SECTS AMONG THE JEWS. 383 

from one another, until in the time of the Maccabsean struggle they 
stood over against one another as avowed antagonists. This serves 
to explain better than almost anything else the origin of the two 
principal divisions in post-exilian Judaism. The party of the Phar- 
isees sprang out of that of the scribes ; the party of the Sadducees 
out of that of the priests. Neither was ever numerically identical 
with the body from which it arose ; but the spirit aud tendencies of 
the priesthood, in the later times, were always best represented by 
the Sadducsean party, while the Pharisees answered, as the flower 
to the seed, to the principles and aims of the powerful class of 
scribes. 

7. The first object of the scribe was to honor the Mosaic law and 
make its precepts the rule of daily life for every Israelite. This 
was a most worthy object. The means taken to effect it were often 
far enough from being worthy. They frequently served to nullify 
the law by burdening it with a mass of details utterly foreign to its 
fundamental principles. Beside the written law they placed the 
unwritten one, made up of their own infinitesimal explanations and 
applications. Little by little tradition took the place of Holy Scrip- 
ture. It came to have not only an equal but a superior influence in 
the conduct of daily life. The Talmud directly affirms that it is 
more blameworthy to teach contrary to the instructions of the scribes 
than to those of the law. By such a course the vital principle of 
obedience was weakened at its centre. The letter was made more 
important than the spirit, and the commandments of God rendered 
of "no effect" by the tradition. 

From the New Testament w T e get not a few significant hints of 
what traditional Judaism was in its essential features. It required 
the making " clean the outside of the cup and platter." The law 
of tithes it so extended as to include mint, anise and cummin, while 
the weightier matters were neglected. It increased the number of 
fasts enjoined in the law from one in a year to two each week, and 
adopted the unseemly custom of praying at the corners of the streets 
"to be seen of men." 1 The Sabbath was made a day of painful 
restrictions. Thirty-nine different forms of activity, illegal on the 
Sabbath, are enumerated in the Talmud. In harmony with other 
exaggerations the day itself was prolonged and made to begin before 
the setting of Friday's sun. It is easy to see what must have been 
the general effect of such a state of things. All spontaneity of re- 
ligious service, along with sensitiveness of conscience, was effectually 

i Matt. 15 : 3, 6 ; Mark 7 : 8, 9, 13. 



384 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

crushed out, and religion was made to consist in a machine-like ob- 
servance of outward rules alone. 

8. The Pharisees. — The Pharisees formed the party of law, that 
is, the law as thus interpreted and applied by the scribes. The most 
distinguished scribes and a large majority of their whole number were 
always Pharisees. Just when this movement began it is not possible 
to say with certainty. It is seen in progress as early as the Macca- 
bsean struggle. There existed at that time a small body, of whom 
scribes were at least the ruling spirits, who disputed on some occa- 
sions the authority of the Maccabsean heroes, and showed a marked 
distaste to their noble breadth of spirit. Once, in supposed loyalty 
to their principles, they went wholly over to the side of the enemy. 
They bore the name, probably of their own choosing, of the Assi- 
dseans or the Chassidim — that is, " the pious ones." Of these Chas- 
sidim the Pharisees were undoubtedly direct descendants. The lat- 
ter title, however, has nothing to do with the former except that it 
has a somewhat similar meaning, " the separated ones," or, if given 
in derision by their enemies, as not unlikely, " the separatists." The 
title first occurs in the time of John Hyrcanus (b.c. 135-105), whose 
measures they violently opposed. 

It is certain that they preferred to call themselves "Chaberim" — 
that is, "the companions." The brotherhood to which they be- 
longed, in their estimation was the core of the true Israel in distinc- 
tion from the mass of the people, who made no special effort to keep 
the oral law in its completeness. The contempt with which they 
looked down upon those who were not of their own order is well 
illustrated in a passage of the New Testament, where they remark 
to the officers who had been sent to arrest Jesus, " But this multitude 
which knoweth not the law are accursed." 1 It was on precisely the 
same ground that the Pharisees blamed our Lord for being a com- 
panion of publicans and sinners. In the Acts the Pharisees are 
spoken of as a sect. 2 It is not meant to be intimated by this that 
they were guilty of any departure from the orthodox faith of Juda- 
ism. No one better represented it. They were a sect only as making 
up a distinct body of purists, thousands in number, to whom the oral 
law was the highest duty. 

9. Pharisaism cannot be said to have been a product of the Mac- 
cabsean struggle ; but that struggle served greatly to emphasize a 
movement already in progress. It began with the first efforts to in- 
terpret in detail, and keep strictly, the ceremonial law. John Hyr- 

i John 7 : 49. 2 Acts 15 : 5 : 26 : 5. 



SECTS AMONG THE JEWS. 385 

canus, the first successor of the Maccabsean brothers and son of the 
noted Simon, began his reign as a Pharisee ; but before he closed it 
he went publicly over to the party of the Sadducees. The civil as 
well as ecclesiastical head of the Jewish people, politics interested 
him far more than religion. In the meantime the Maccabsean family 
to which he belonged, in the changes of the times, had fallen heir to 
the office of high priest to the exclusion of the regular Aaronic line. 
This was enough to enlist the sympathies of the Pharisaic party 
against it, and so, ultimately, against him. The better to counteract 
their opposition Hyrcanus became a Sadducee. Under his succes- 
sors, Aristobulus I. and Alexander Jannseus (b.c. 105-78), the dis- 
agreement culminated in open revolution, in which many thousand 
Pharisees were put to death or went into voluntary banishment. On 
the death of Jannseus and the accession of his queen to the regency 
Pharisaic influence became again dominant, and remained so until 
the extinction of the Jewish state. 

10. The Sadducees. — The Sadducees, in distinction from the 
Pharisees, who were the party in best repute with the people, were 
the gentry, the aristocracy, of Israel. They put social position above 
conformity to the oral law, and, unlike their antagonists, instead of 
making a religion of their politics, they were much inclined to make 
their politics their religion. They reflect a far less distinct outline 
from the pages of Jewish history than do the Pharisees. They were 
to a far less extent a direct development of Jewish institutions. 
Given the work of the^scribes in connection with the Mosaic law 
and the party of the Pharisees, sooner or later, was an almost inev- 
itable result. The Sadducees, on the other hand, were more a party 
in opposition to the Pharisees than an independent growth. 

11. The name Sadducee, it is likely, is derived from Zadok — that 
is, the Zadok who was high priest in the time of David. There are 
serious objections to deriving the word from the Hebrew tsaddik, 
meaning just, righteous. Moreover, it is clear that most of the 
priestly class were Sadducees. There were of course priests who 
were not Sadducees, just as there were scribes who were not Phar- 
isees ; but as the Pharisees best represented the scribes, so the Sad- 
ducsean party was best represented by the priesthood. This began 
to be the case, as it respected the Sadducees, from the time that the 
high priest John Hyrcanus joined them. It was obviously so in the 
times of the New Testament ; and during the whole period of post- 
exilian Judaism to the beginning of the Christian era, the priests 
undoubtedly formed a sort of upper and privileged class. They 



386 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

were the Jewish nobility, as far as any such distinction was tolerated 
or thought of among the Jews. Josephus begins his autobiography 
thus : " The family from which I am come is not an ignoble one ; 
but I have descended from a line of priests from the beginning. 
Now as nobility among the several peoj^les is of divine origin, so 
with us it is the sure indication of the splendor of a family that it 
is of priestly origin." 

12. But it was not on the ground that they were priests that the 
Pharisees were opposed to the Sadducees. Officially, especially as 
members together of the Sanhedrin, they stood in the closest rela- 
tions with one another. We find them actually co-operating in their 
measures to check the spread of Christianity. Not a few priests in 
the time of Christ and later were adherents of the Pharisaic party. 
It was rather the dominant element in the priesthood, the men of 
highest position and greatest influence, that represented Sadducaism 
and became a theological, political and social counterpoise to the 
tendencies found in Pharisaism. It was the Pharisees, not the Sad- 
ducees, who were open to the charge of innovation. In theological 
belief the Sadducees may be said to have been the conservative 
party. They recognized the written word only as binding. They 
refused to sanction the additions which the scribes had made to it. 
It was formerly held that the Sadducees accepted only the Penta- 
teuch as Scripture ; but this was not the case. They looked upon 
the entire Old Testament as authoritative ; but they were never 
strict constructionists. Their adherence to the Scriptures was more 
theoretical than practical ; still in the several respects in which they 
differed theologically with their opponents they did so with no little 
consistency. 

13. It was a doctrine of the Pharisees, for example, that every 
soul is immortal and receives in a future world recompense accord- 
ing to the deeds done in the body. The Sadducees, on the other 
hand, denied this, holding that the soul perishes with the body. 1 It 
would be too much to say with some that, in this respect, the Sad- 
ducees represented the position of the Old Testament. Our Saviour 
himself showed that they did not. 2 But inasmuch as the Pharisees 
had adopted the rule that any one who said that the doctrine of the 
resurrection was not to be derived from the law would have no part 
in the future world, the Sadducees went to the opposite extreme of 
denying that there was any authoritative teaching on the subject. 

The same was true with respect to a belief in spirits and angels. 

l Matt. 22 : 23: Acts 1:1, 2. » Murk 12 ; 24-27. 



SECTS AMONG THE JEWS. 387 

According to the New Testament the Sadducees denied the existence 
of either. Still further, the Sadducees denied, in opposition to the 
Pharisees, an overruling Providence. They taught that good and 
evil, fortune and misfortune, were matters w r holly within human 
control. They made no allowance for circumstances. In questions 
concerning the relation of divine sovereignty and human free agency 
they attempted to escape all difficulty by eliminating the element of 
divine sovereignty. In all this it is not necessary to say that they 
did not represent the teaching of the Old Testament as over against 
a later tradition and philosophy. But it was that rather than the 
other ; it was that in an exaggerated and so untrue form that they 
represented. It was not out of any special regard for what was old 
in distinction from Pharisaic novelties that they maintained such 
views. It was not because in their opinion it was in better keeping 
with the Scriptures. It was because it best served their partisan 
purposes ; it was most in harmony with the worldly disposition and 
political aspirations which they cherished. 

14. With all their extravagances it could not be denied that the 
Pharisees w T ere eminently religious. The Sadducees, on the other 
hand, were eminently worldly. Forming a select coterie, which had 
little in common with the masses of the people, they were ready to 
submit gracefully to political connections with others than Jews and 
derive advantage from it. The Pharisee would submit if he must ; 
but he denied the right of Csesar to demand tribute. Pharisees in 
large numbers refused to take the oath of allegiance to Herod. It 
was a Pharisee, one Sadduc, who, with Judas the Gaulonite, founded 
the party of zealots whose aim was, by denying the right of taxa- 
tion, to draw the Jews into revolt against the Roman power. All 
such conduct was distasteful to the Sadducees. They were content 
to take things as they found them. They rejected the idea of na- 
tional isolation. It was for their personal interest, as men of wealth 
and high position, to be on friendly terms with the Greeks and Ro- 
mans. Religious considerations, national hopes, scriptural teach- 
ings, did not greatly influence them. 

Their own hereditary rights they were ever ready to defend. 
Many and dreadful were the conflicts which they waged in behalf 
of these during the last century before the Christian era. They 
especially insisted on the pre-eminence of the temple and its services 
as over against the growing influence of the synagogues, in which 
Pharisaism found its stronghold. The Pharisees depreciated the 
temple, and often with a very feeble logic as our Saviour himself 



388 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

showed. 1 It is easy to see how such a contest between people and 
aristocrats, the synagogues and the temple, would end. The Phar- 
isees, from the time of their first great difference with Alexander 
Jannseus, slowly but surely gained one point after another: the 
management of the temple services ; the mitigation of the penal code 
in the interests of the common people; the regulation of the fes- 
tivals ; a more general and rigorous observance of the ceremonial 
law as interpreted by tradition ; and, finally, the almost exclusive 
control of the Sanhedrin where Sadducsean influence had been most 
felt. It was well for Christianity that the victory, as far as it is right 
to speak of victory in view of the later history of Judaism, remained 
with the Pharisees. Their religious zeal, even as misdirected, was a 
more valuable inheritance than the others' indifference ; their hold 
on the Messianic hope and other precious Old Testament revelations, 
than the others' repudiation of them. Besides Saul of Tarsus, we 
are not to forget men like Gamaliel, and Nicodemus, and Joseph of 
Arimathsea, and many others to whom the Christian Church owes so 
large a debt of gratitude. 

15. The Essenes. — Another religious division among the Jews 
at the time of our Lord was that of the Essenes. Essenism, although 
having its origin essentially in Judaism, differed so materially from 
it in many points that it makes upon one almost the impression of a 
foreign product. It had little concern with the things that most 
concerned the Pharisee and Sadducee. They were political as well 
as religious parties. The Essenes eschewed politics, and their atti- 
tude toward the national religion was such that they might be called 
rather an order than a party. In belief and practice they were far 
more nearly allied to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees ; but from 
the former they were also widely separated. While zealous for some 
features of the law, for others they had no regard. They outdid the 
Pharisee in their devotion to Sabbath observance, outward purifica- 
tions and the like ; but it was under the influence of wholly different 
motives. They laid little stress on the national idea, and by the 
rejection of sacrifices even excluded themselves from the temple 
services. 

16. The meaning of the name Essene, which appears in different 
forms in the Greek, is in dispute. It is most probable that origin- 
ally it was Shemitic. The corresponding Hebrew term has not 
indeed been found ; but a Syriac word meaning " pious," with great 
likelihood furnished the primitive title of the sect. According to 

i Matt. 23 : 16-22. 



SECTS AMONG THE JEWS. 389 

Josephus, the Essenes arose in the time of Jonathan the Maccabee. 
He makes specific mention of a distinguished member of the order 
as early as the time of Aristobulus, B.C. 105. This writer, while our 
principal source of information concerning the sect, is not the only 
one. 1 They are also independently spoken of by Philo and by Pliny. 
It is not known that the Essenes were to be found anywhere outside 
of Palestine. Within it they were gathered mostly in small com- 
munities in the larger tow T ns and villages. According to Pliny one 
such community was also to be found in the wilderness of Engedi 
on the Dead Sea. At the beginning of our era their whole number 
was estimated at only about four thousand. They lived in houses 
by themselves, answering to the monasteries of later times, and were 
strictly organized. 

17. At the head of the order stood a president, to whom unlimited 
obedience was given. A prolonged and severe probation was neces- 
sary in order to gain admission to the order. During the first year's 
novitiate an axe, an apron and a white garment were given to the 
candidate, as symbols of purification and other peculiar tenets of the 
brotherhood. Not until a probation of three years had expired was 
one fully admitted to membership. He then bound himself by a 
terrible oath to fidelity and, as it respected those without, to secresy. 
Only fully-grown men were received, although children were admit- 
ted to a course of preparatory training. For disobedience to the 
rules of the order the extreme penalty was expulsion. Besides the 
president, the governing body consisted of a council composed of at 
least a hundred members. One of the most characteristic of the 
tenets of the Essenes was the community of goods. The daily toil 
which was incumbent on all the able-bodied began with prayer. 
Returning from it, purification was required, both at noon and at 
night, before partaking of the common meal. Agriculture was the 
chief occupation, although no kind of manual labor was excluded 
excepting the manufacture of warlike weapons. Trade, on the other 
hand, as leading to covetousness, was prohibited. 

18. The Essenes laid a particular emphasis on the freedom of the 
individual and on speaking the truth. They made much also of 
cleanliness of person, bathing not only, as we have said, before each 
meal, but also after every call of nature. On the Sabbath they 
did not respond to such calls. As a rule they rejected marriage. 
Their meals they regarded in the light of a religious exercise, much 
as did the Jews their sacrificial feasts. They were begun and ended 

i Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 2, 8 : 2-13 ; Antiq. 13, 5 : 9 ; 15, 10 : 4, 5 ; 18, 1 : 2-6. 



390 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

with prayer. The opinion that they abstained from the use of animal 
food and of wine is not supported by the best authorities. In phil- 
osophy and theology the Essenes occupied nearly the position of the 
orthodox Jews. Their regard for the lawgiver Moses was unbounded. 
The use of his name blasphemously was punishable with death. At 
their public services the Scriptures of the Old Testament were read 
and expounded. According to Josephus, they showed special rever- 
ence to the sun. He says, "And as for their piety towards God, it 
was very extraordinary ; for before sun-rising they speak not a word 
about profane matters, but put up certain prayers, which they have 
received from their forefathers, as if they made a supplication for its 
rising." 1 

It seems likely that they looked upon the sun as somehow repre- 
senting the effluence of the divine glory ; and while not adoring it 
directly, they did pay it honors inconsistent with the precepts of the 
Mosaic code. In addition to the Scriptures they had other writings 
which they held in almost equal authority. The doctrine of the 
soul's immortality they held with great tenacity. The body, in their 
estimation, was only its temporary abiding-place. " For their doc- 
trine is this: 2 that bodies are corruptible and that the matter they 
are made of is not permanent ; but that souls are immortal, continue 
forever ; and that they come out of the most subtile air, and are 
united to their bodies as to prisons, into which they are driven by a 
certain natural enticement ; but that when they are set free from the 
bonds of the flesh, they then, as released from a long bondage, re- 
joice and mount upward." 

19. There is considerable difference of opinion among scholars 
on the question whether Essenism is a direct outgrowth of Judaism, 
more particularly Pharisaism, or the result of an effort to engraft 
some outside and alien element upon it. The majority, perhaps, 
hold to the former view. They regard the sect as for the most part 
simply an exaggeration of the Pharisaic tendency. There is much 
to favor this theory, as the foregoing description shows. On the 
other hand, the fact of the rejection of animal sacrifices by the Es- 
senes and the peculiar honors they paid to the sun can hardly be 
harmonized with the fundamental principles of Judaism. Their 
doctrine, too, concerning the relation of soul and body is in direct 
antagonism with Pharisaic teaching. In these respects they ap- 
proach nearer to that of Pythagoras than to that of their Jewish 
contemporaries. It seems most probable, accordingly, that the origin 

* Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 2, 8 : 5. 2 Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 2, 8 : 5. 



SECTS AMONG THE JEWS. 391 

of Essenism must be sought in the peculiar associations and influ- 
ences to which the Jewish people were exposed during the last two 
centuries before Christ, especially to the influence of Pharisaism 
modified by the teachings of Pythagoras. 

20. The Therapeut^e. — The " Therapeutse," formerly regarded 
as a sect allied to the Essenes, it is now held never had any real 
existence. The alleged work of Philo in which they are described 
is pronounced a forgery. Some person who set out to draw a pic- 
ture of ideal asceticism assumed the name of Philo in order to give 
to his fictitious representations a wider currency. 

21. Proselytes. — Proselytes to Judaism did not indeed form a 
sect ; but they made up a large and distinct class of people whose 
peculiarities may be considered under this head. When we reflect 
on what Judaism was in the time of our Lord and what its relations 
were to the various nationalities with which it came in contact, 
especially to the Greeks and Romans, we find it somewhat difficult 
to understand how there could have been converts to it from other 
peoples. As a matter of fact there were at the beginning of our 
era thousands and possibly hundreds of thousands of such converts. 
It is to be remembered that at this time there were far more Jews 
living outside of Palestine than within it. Of the great numbers 
who from time to time, before and since the exile, had emigrated or 
been forcibly removed from the country, only a small proportion 
ever returned. Ten of the original twelve tribes were of this class, 
as well as no small part of the remaining two. Antiochus III. (b.c. 
223-187) transferred at one time some thousands of Jewish families, 
previously settled in the regions of Mesopotamia and Babylon, into 
Asia Minor for the purpose of strengthening thereby his throne. 

22. In a letter preserved by Philo, which Agrippa wrote to the 
emperor Caligula, concerning Jewish colonies outside of Palestine, 
the following graphic passage occurs : " Jerusalem is the capital not 
alone of Judaea, but, by means of colonies, of most other lands also. 
These colonies have been sent out, at fitting opportunities, into the 
neighboring countries of Egypt, Phoenicia, Syria, Ccele-Syria, and 
the greater part of Asia as far as Bithynia and the most remote cor- 
ners of Pontus. In the same manner, also, into Europe — Thessaly, 
Bceotia, Macedon, ^Etolia, Attica, Argos, Corinth and the most and 
finest parts of the Peloponnesus. And not only is the mainland full 
of Israelitish communities, but also the most important islands — 
Eubcea, Cyprus, Crete. And I say nothing of the countries beyond 
the Euphrates, for all of them, with unimportant exceptions, Bab- 



392 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

ylon and the satrapies that include the fertile districts lying around 
it, have Jewish inhabitants." 

These statements, extravagant as they might seem, are fully sup- 
ported by information from other sources. Bo numerous were the 
Jews throughout the East near the beginning of the Christian era 
that they formed at Nahardea aud Nisibis, on and near the Euphra- 
tes, an independent kingdom which even the Romans deemed it pru- 
dent to treat with respect. At Adiabene, the present Kurdistan, 
the royal family itself embraced the Jewish faith. In such numbers 
were they at Antioch and Alexandria that they enjoyed peculiar 
privileges and had their own ethnarch. If we may trust Josephus, 
ten thousand Jews fell at Damascus alone in conflicts with the 
Romans, and eight thousand in Rome supported a delegation sent 
from Palestine to ask certain favors from Augustus. - On the occa- 
sion of the first pentecost after the ascension of our Lord we read 
that there were sojourning at Jerusalem "Jews, devout men, from 
every nation under heaven. . . . Parthians and Medes and Elam- 
ites, and the dwellers in Mesopotamia, in Judaea and Cappadocia, 
in Pontus and Asia, in Phrygia and Pamphylia, in Egypt and the 
parts of Libya about Gyrene." 1 

23. Then it is to be remembered also that the Jews, wherever 
they were, remained, as a rule, true to their inherited faith and cus- 
toms. Where other peoples w T ere swallowed up by the surrounding 
heathenism, they presented almost as marked a contrast to the com- 
munities around them as Judaea did to Egypt or Babylon. They 
carried with them into every place where they went the Mosaic law 
in a written form. They established everywhere synagogues and 
proseuchce — that is, resorts for prayer — which were not only a potent 
means of preserving their religious institutions intact, but became 
also important centres of social life, uniting the scattered people 
together and to their native land. From Jerusalem they were reg- 
ularly informed of the periodic recurrence of the national festivals, 
and hundreds of thousands each year made their pilgrimage from 
various quarters of the world to the sacred precincts. With scru- 
pulous exactness they made their annual contributions to the temple 
treasury, depositories being formed for the purpose in convenient 
places, from whence immense caravans conveyed, at stated seasons, 
the collected funds to their destination. 

24. Here, now, there was a positive religions faith based on a 
written revelation and having a history which put to shame the 

1 Acts 2 -.5-11. 



SECTS AMONG THE JEWS. 393 

mythical outgrowths of Greece and Rome. It is not strange that it 
made a strong appeal to those who had been used to the empty 
forms of a materialistic worship. It is not strange that men like 
Cornelius of the " Italian band" found in it that which in some 
degree responded to the deeper longings of their souls. Then, be- 
sides the simplification of putting the one God, Jehovah, in place 
of the many gods of the heathen pantheons, Judaism required and 
expected of its disciples a strictly moral life. This was something 
which heathenism had never been able to achieve on any consider- 
able scale. Such a life, as exemplified in its own communities, the 
Jews showed to be the highest wisdom as well as the highest duty. 
Its ways were ways of pleasantness and its paths peace. The suc- 
cessful industry of this people and their commercial prosperity were 
proverbial, and must always have made a profound impression on 
their pagan neighbors. 

Sometimes, too, there may have been social reasons — especially 
the desire for intermarriage — which prompted persons to adopt the 
Jewish faith. Moreover, the Jews were themselves by no means 
uninterested in the matter of gaining adherents to their religion. 
Our Lord spoke of the Pharisee as one who was ready to compass 
sea and land in order to make one proselyte. It was no less true 
of the Jews of the dispersion than those of Palestine. This is shown 
by the character of the Jewish-Hellenistic literature, which had this 
for one of its principal objects. But whatever may have been the 
inducements offered, they were eagerly accepted by thousands if not 
hundreds of thousands. No disgrace or ostracism which they might 
incur from their own countrymen sufficed to keep them from the 
step. Josephus says that at Antioch the Jews " made proselytes 
of a great number of Greeks, perpetually, and thereby, after a sort, 
brought them to be a portion of their own body." ' In the Acts it 
is recorded that on one occasion after Paul delivered an address in 
the synagogue at Antioch, " many of the Jews and of the devout 
proselytes followed Paul and Barnabas." 2 And he had the same 
experience in Thessalonica and in Athens. 3 

25. The relations of the proselytes to Judaism differed greatly 
according to circumstances. There were some who were such only 
in name. They still, in the main, adhered to their heathenish prac- 
tices, while observing certain ordinances of Judaism. There were 
others who submitted to the rite of circumcision and took upon them 
therewith all the obligations of the Mosaic law. Between these two 

1 Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 7, 3 : 3. 2 Acts 13 : 43. 3 Acts 17 : 4, 17 ; cf. Acts 13 : 50. 



394 SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 

extremes there seem to have been converts of almost every grade. 
Some contented themselves with simply giving up their gods and 
the worship of the same by means of images. Others, in addition, 
accepted a few of the principal injunctions of the ceremonial law, 
like that concerning clean and unclean food, and were more or less 
regular attendants on the services of the synagogue. But neither 
of these classes can have been regarded as proselytes in full, or 
proper members of the Jewish communities. They were "fearers 
of God," " worshippers of God," such as are frequently described 
in the Acts, 1 but not yet proselytes in the widest sense. This 
name was given alone to such as entered into the Israelitish com- 
munion by means of the distinguishing ordinance of circumcision, 
and, forsaking their heathenish practices, assumed without reserve 
all the obligations incumbent on the strictest Jew. It has been 
usual, accordingly, to speak of two classes of proselytes — " pros- 
elytes of the gate" and "proselytes of righteousness," the latter only 
being the full proselyte. It has been held that the seven so-called 
Noachian precepts simply were binding on the former, as, ab- 
stinence from blasphemy, idolatry, murder, disobedience toward the 
civil authorities, and the eating of flesh with its blood. It is doubt- 
ful, however, whether such a distinction can be maintained. The 
term "proselyte of the gate" first arose in the middle ages. The 
rules which are said to have been binding upon him appear to have 
been merely a matter of rabbinical theory and never actually in 
force. The " proselyte of righteousness," which was another name 
for a convert to Judaism, would seem to have been the only real 
proselyte; at least, the sole distinction found in the Talmud ap- 
proaching the one named is between the heathen convert to Judaism 
and the heathen temporarily residing among the Jews. In the one 
case he is no longer an alien from the commonwealth of Israel ; in 
the other, he still remains so. 

26. Three things were needful for the reception of a Gentile into 
the Israelitish communion : circumcision (if a male), purification by 
water, and a sacrifice. After the destruction of the temple, the third 
condition was considered as no longer binding. In modern times it 
has been somewhat widely questioned whether proselytes were re- 
quired to submit to the rite of purification by water. The affirm- 
ative is held, as it would appear, by the majority of the best author- 
ities, and has the direct support of the Talmud and other early 
witnesses. Over against them too much emphasis should not be laid 

1 Acts 10 : 2, 22 ; 13 : 26, 43, 50. 



SECTS AMONG THE JEWS. 



395 



on the silence of Philo and Josephus. Whether this purification by 
water is to be understood as answering to Christian baptism it is 
needless to discuss. If the native Jew in the time of our Saviour 
felt obliged, on the ground of certain passages of the Pentateuch, 1 
to undergo as often as he did the ceremonies of purification, he would 
be likely to think them quite as needful for one who for the first 
time came out of the defilements of heathenism formally to embrace 
the Jewish faith. 

i Lev. 11-15; Num.19. 




A Hebrew Scribe, with Roll and Frontlet. 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



GENESIS. 

1:6 132 

1:16 132 

1:26-28 187 

1:29,30 76 

2:2, 3 136 

2:3 259 

2:6 132 

2:15 228 

2:17 354 

3:7 74 

3:7,21 86 

3:8 135 

3:17 118 

4:2 118 

4:2,20 76 

4:3,4 335 

4:16, 17,23,24 187 

4:17 18 

4:17,20 11 

4:19 41 

4:20 15 

4:21 110, 142, 146 

4:22 156 

4:23 47 

5:1 187 

5:29 118 

6:15 181 

7:1 187 

7:2 76 

7:4 136 

7:4,10 259 

7:11 137 

7:11,24 137 

8:4 137 

8:10 136 

8:10, 12 259 

8:13 291 

8:14 137 

8:21 339 

9:3 76 

9:4 77,338 

9:6 220 

9:20 118 

9:20,21 73 

9:23 89 

10:9 72 

11:3-5 18 

11:31 168 

12:3 189 

12:4,5 168 

12:16 113, 114,117 

13:2 156, 162 

14:15 240 

14:22 , 21G 



14:23 94 

15:1 243 

15:2-5 37 

15:5 132 

15:10-17 216 

15:18 223 

16:1,2 47 

16:2 37 

17:12 136 

17:13 174 

17:16 195 

18:1-10 341 

18:2 53 

18:4 84,106 

18:6...50,52,66,84,182 

18:7 79 

18:19 157 

19:1 33 

19:1-3 82 

19:1-10 53 

19:3 67 

19:4 50 

19:8 52 

19:30 14 

20:16 162 

21:8 52 

21:10-14 40 

21:20 72 

21:21 44 

21:28-30 232 

22:2 38 

22:3 118 

22:9 187 

22:17 132 

23:2,19 58 

23:3-18 232 

23:5,6 11 

23:7, 12 53 

23:10,18 33 

23:15 177 

23:16 162, 174,177 

23:17 127 

24:2 216 

24:3 44 

24:10 114 

24:11 52 

24:15 50 

24:17 52 

24:22 100 

24:22,47 102 

24:22, 53 162 

24:32 106 

24:35 107 

24:47 101 

24:50 40 

24:53 44 



24:55,67 45 

24:61 168 

24:63 135 

24:65 91 

24:67 16 

25:6 49 

25:8 60 

25:16 17,31 

25:27 72 

25:29 80 

25:33 40 

25:34 72 

26:4 132 

26:12 IIS 

27:3 80,246 

27:4 79 

27:9 80 

27:9, 16 Ill 

27:15 89 

27:19 29 

27:29 40 

27:1,42 49 

28:11 28 

28:20-22 359 

29:1 168 

29:2 67 

20:6 5) 

29:7 110 

29:18 45 

29:22 46 

29:24, 29 45,49 

29:25 91 

29:27 136 

29:27,28 259 

30:1-15 49 

30:3 37 

30:14 139,154 

30:32 108 

30:36 181 

30:43 114, 117 

31:14,15 40 

31:15 45 

31:17, 34 114 

31:19 86 

31:19,53 364 

31:27 139,142 

31:33,34 16 

31:34 17,169, 364 

31:39 110,225 

31:40 109 

31:54 341 

32:7 114 

32:15 115 

32:32 340 

33:17 12,17 

33:19 118,177 



34:12 44 

35:2 364,365 

35:4 97, 101 

35:16 181 

35:17 154 

35:20 62 

35:21 Ill 

35:22 189 

36:24 116 

37:3,23 88 

37:7 118, 124 

37:13 110 

37:22 35 

37:25 115, 162,163 

37:28 162,178 

37:34 60 

37:35 38 

37:36 199 

38:12 86,109 

38:14,19 91 

38:17 Ill 

38:18 147 

38:18,25 97,98 

38:24 221 

38:28 88,154 

39:1 162 

39:20 226,227 

40:3,20 226 

40:3 227 

40:19 221 

40:22 68 

41:8,24 132 

41:9 85 

41:42 97, 100 

41:45 43 

41:53-57 175 

42:1, 2 162 

42:6 53 

42:17, 19 226 

42:25 87 

42:27 30 

42:35 104 

43: 11. ..70, 76,121,163 

43:16,25 82 

43:28 53 

43:32 83 

43:33 29,40 

43:34 84 

45:19 166 

45:19, 27 168 

46:4 58 

46:31 37 

46:34 107 

47:3 107 

47:20 216 

47:29,30 : 59 

397 



398 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



48:2 28 

48:5,6 40, 188 

49:3,4 40 

49:10 195 

49:11 89,92 

49:13 170 

49:14 118 

49:19 240 

49:28 188 

50:1 58 

50:2,26 58 

50:9 166 

50:10...: 60,124 

EXODUS. 

1:15 154 

1:16 28,37 

1:19 37 

2:3 150 

2:16 50 

2:20 52 

2:21 43 

3:8 69 

3:16,18 189 

4:20 118 

4:24 30 

4; 25 154 

4:29 189 

5:6 147,191 

5:14-16 191 

5:8 159 

5:18 19 

6:8 216 

6:17 37 

7:11 378 

9:31 86,138 

9:32 120 

11:5 65 

11:7 233 

12:1-28,43-51 257 

12:2 138 

12:3 84 

12:4 261 

12:4, 7 11 

12:8 72,79 

12:9 80 

12:11... 95,97,98,261 

12:13 261,338 

12:15,19 67 

12:15-20 267 

12:18 135 

12:32 107 

12:34,39 67 

12:44 57 

13:2 316 

13:3-1D 257, 267 

13:4 136 

13:7 67 

13:8 39 

13:9, 10,16, 17.... 100 

13:12-15 38 

13:13 331 

14:7 249 

14:24 134 

15:1-21 241 

15:7 119 

15:10 155 

15:20 51,85,142 

15:20, 21 139 

16:5, 22-30 259 

16:12 82 



16:23 136 

16:31 73 

16:33 292 

16:36 182 

17:14 147 

18:12 340 

18:12,13 82 

18:13-22 189 

18: 13-26 211 

18 : 13-27 210 

18 : 15 .-. 210 

18:21,22 235 

18:25 211 

19 269 

19:3-6 315 

19:6 195 

19 : 10, 14, 15 354 

19:15 358 

20:5 133 

20: 10 233 

20:11 259 

20:17 46,47 

20 : 24, 25 286, 351 

20:25 19 

20 : 26 286 

21:2,4-6 57 

21 : 2-6 230 

21 : 6 210 

21:7-11 49,57 

21:10,11 41 

21 : 12 220 

21 : 13 223 

21 : 15,17 220 

21 : 16 220, 225 

21 : 17 216 

21:19 98,154 

21 : 20, 21, 26, 27... 57 

21:22 46 

21:23 219 

21 : 28-30 225 

21 : 32 178, 225 

21:32,35 77 

21 :34 232 

22: 1,4 225 

22 : 2 225 

22: 3 225 

22:5,6 232 

22 : 7-15 232 

22: 8 210 

22:11 216 

22: 12 225 

22: 16,17 44,50 

22:18 220,377 

22:19 50 

22:26 27 

22 : 26, 27 89 

22:27 89 

22:29 38,270 

22:30 128 

22 : 31 77,113 

23:1 215 

23:4 232 

23:5 233 

23:6-8 214 

23: 10-12 119 

23: 12 112,233 

23:14,17 329 

23: 14-19 257 

23: 15 268 

23:16 138 

23:19 77,112, 233, 

170, 331 



23:29 72 

24:4 147,188 

25:6 76 

25:10,16 291 

25:22 284,291 

25:23 28,292 

25:31-40 293 

26: 1,6,7 289 

26:7 112 

26 : 9, 12, 13 290 

26 : 14 290 

26:31 289 

26:33 290 

27 : 19 290 

27 : 20 76,293 

28:1 316 

28 : 1-43 324 

28:6 88 

28:29 326 

28:33, 34 75,91 

28 : 36 327 

28:39 323 

28:40 321 

28:41 318 

28 : 42 86, 322 

28 : 42,43 322 

29:2 67,348 

29:4 354 

29:8 321 

29:9 94 

29: 18 339 

29:22 108 

29:35 318 

29:36 318 

29 : 37 339 

29 : 38 109 

29 : 40 74, 350 

29 : 42-46 284 

30:1-10,34-38.... 292 

30:10 278 

30:13 178,179 

30: 22-33 106 

30:24 177 

30:30 318 

31 :5 159 

31:10 327 

31 :14, 15 220 

32: 1-6 365 

32:2 97,101 

32:4 150 

32:8 112 

32:17 241 

32:17,18 139 

32: 26 316 

33 : 7-11 294, 295 

34:15 78 

34:16 43 

34: 18-20 262 

34 : 18-26 257 

34 : 22 138, 348 

34:26 77,112,270 

34:33-35 92 

35:18 290 

35 : 19 327 

35:22 99,101 

35:23 16 

35:26 50,112 

35:30-35 285 

35:33 156,159 

36: 1 161 

36:8,14 289 

36:8,35 88 



36:20 287 

37 : 1, 10, 15, 25 ... 156 

38:8 286 

38:21 319 

39: 1-31 324 

39:1,41 327 

39:3 157 

39:27 321,323 

39 : 28 322, 323 

39 : 30 327 

40 : 12 354 

40: 15 318 

40:19 291 



LEVITICUS. 

1 :4 339 

1 :9 339 

1:11 345 

1 : 15 338 

2 : 1, 4, 14 337, 348 

2:2,9,12 339 

2:4 348 

2:4,7,15 75 

2:7 348 

2:11 67,70,337 

2: 14 348,349 

3:5, 6 339 

3:3,9,17 77 

4:3-12 344 

4 : 4, 14, 23, 28 343 

4:5 320 

4 : 6, 17, 30, 34 338 

4: 13-21 344 

4: 17,18 344 

4 : 24, 28, 32 345 

4:31 339 

5:1 216 

5:1,2,4,6 343 

5:7 336,340 

5 : 7, 11 345 

5:11 336 

5: 11-13 349 

5: 15 178 

5: 17-19 346 

6:1-7 225 

6:2,3 346 

6:5,6 216 

6: 8-13 319 

6 : 20 320, 349 

6:21 80 

6: 23 349 

6:26-28 332 

6: 27-30 344 

6:29 332 

7:2 345 

7:3 108 

7:3,23 77 

7:8 332 

7 : 11-21 342 

7: 12 336 

7: 12,13 337 

7: 12-15 350 

7 : 12-16 342 

7:26 77 

7:28-34 342 

7:30-32 341 

7:34 332 

7:36 318 

8:6 354 

8:9 327 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



399 



8:12 76 

8: 13 321 

8:25 108 

8:26 350 

8:33 318 

9: 1-5 319 

9:3 109 

9:19 108 

9:22 319 

10:2 -317 

10:6 104 

10:7 318 

10:9 74 

10: 15 330 

10:17 344 

11-15 chapters 395 

11: 1-8 116 

11 :4 115 

11:9-12 71 

11 :24, 32, 33,40... 355 

11:32 87 

11:35 80 

12: 1-8 358 

12:2-7 38 

12: 6 109,349 

12:6,8 340,343 

12:8..... 336 

13 355 

13:30 88 

13:45 104 

13:47 86 

14 346,355 

14:1-7 278 

14:4 336 

14: 10 332 

14: 10,20 349 

14: 13 345 

14: 14 345 

14: 18 318 

14:19 343 

15:1-12 357 

15:15 343 

15:18 358 

15: 19-24 358 

16 278 

16:1-34 278 

16:16 320 

16:33 279 

17 294 

17: 13 72 

17:15 77 

18:6-18 42 

18:10 42 

18:18 41,42 

18:21 336,369,372 

18:23 50 

19:3,30 268 

19:10 124 

19:12 215 

19: 13 119 

19:15 214 

19-.19...87, 116,123,233 
19:20... .44,50,57,223 

19:20,21 346 

19:23-25 128 

19:26,31 377 

19:27 104 

19:27,28 60 

19:28 106 

19:32 105 

19:36 163,181 

19:36 180 



20:2 


336 


27:11-27, 


33 360 


11:16, 17 


210 


20:2-5 


369, 372 


27: 16 


119 


11 : 16, 24-29... 


211 


20:6, 27 


377 


27 : 16-21. 


332 


12: 1 


... 41,43 


20:9 


216, 220 


27 : 16-25. 


230 


12:5 


295 


20:10 


46 


27 : 19-25. 


231 


12:12 


355 


20: 10-21 


200 I 


27:20,22-24 360 


13:23 


73 


20: 11-21 


42 1 


27 : 26, 27. 


330 


13: 28 


32 


20: 14 


59 


27:27 


331 


14: 14 


295 


20: 15, 16 


50 1 


27: 30 


128 


14- 38 


236 


20: 18 


358 


27:31 


328 


15:1-12 


350 


20: 24, 26 


79 


27: 32 


no 


15-2-4 . 


349 


21 : 1-6, 10-15 


317 






15 : 3, 7, 10, 13 


339 


21:5 60, 


104, 106 






15:5 


74 


21 : 6, 8, 17.... 


347 


NUMBI 


15:19,21 


270, 331 


21:7,14 


43 






15:20,21 


. 64,347 


21:9 


... 50, 59 


1 and 26.. 


188 


15:24 


350 


21: 10 


104 

317 


1: 3 


236 


15:24, 27 

15 : 32-36 


345 


21 : 17-23 


1:4 


189 


220 


22:10 


332 


1: 16 


190 


15:35 


221 


22: 11 


57 


2 : 1-34.... 


238 


15:37-40 


315 


22 : 20-24, 27 . 


336 

341 


3: 3 


318 


15:37-41 

16: 19 


89 313 


22:23 


3:6-10.... 


316 


215 


22:27. 


109 


3 : 11-51.. 


316 


17:2 


189 


22:27,28 


233 


3 : 24, 30, 


35 189 


17:8 .- 


292 


22:28 


78 


3:38 


319 


18:2-6 


316 


23 


257 

258 


3:39 

3:41 


35 

40 


18: 3 


319 


23:2, 3 


18:13 


331 


23 : 5, 6, 10-12 


123 


4:3 


317 


18: 15 


331 


23:6 


267 


4:5-16.... 


319 


18:17 


339 


23:9-14. 


331 


4:25 


291 


18: 17,18 


330 


23:11 


268 


4 : 28, 33. 


319 


18:19 


347 


23:13 


. 74, 350 


5 : 5-8 


346 


18:20 


232 


23: 14 


. 64, 268 


5:8 


343 


18:20,21 


328, 329 


23:15 


136 


5:11-31.. 


...46,217,343 


18:24 


347 


23:15,17 


123 


5: 15 


336,349 


18:26-32 


328 


23:17 


348 


5:20 


47 


19 


355, 395 


23 : 17-20 


269 


5:23 


147,151 


19 : 11-16, 18, 


22... 354 


23:18 


350 


6:1-21... 


360 


20:5 


75 


23:20 


342 


6:3 


73,74 


20: 17,19 


166 


23:22 


124 


6:4 


361 


20:19 


166 


23:24 


146 


6:5 


104, 105 


20:26 


317 


23:26-32 


278 


6:6-12... 


346 


20:29 


...50, 137 


23:32 


135 


6:9-12.... 


361 


21:9 


367 


23:33-36. 


272 


6 : 10, 14 . 


343 


21: 17 


35 


23:36,39 


271 


6:13,14. 


342 


21:27-30 


148 


23: 39 


271 


6: 13-21.. 


361 


21:29 


372 


23:39-43 


272 


6:14,16.. 


340 


22 


117 


24:5-9 


293 


6:15 


350 


22:21 


118 


24:14 


221 


6 : 15, 19. 


67 


23:22 


113 


24:17, 18 


219 

57 


6:21 

6 : 22-27.. 


362 

319 


24: 8 


113 


24:17-22 


24:24 


172 


24: 19-21 


232 


7:3 

7:8 


112, 169 

319 


25:1,2 

25:1-9 


84 


25:1-7 


119 


.' 372 


25 : 8-16, 23-55 230 


7:8, 9.... 


294 


25:2 


78 


25: 9 


146 


7:19 


75 


25:3 


369, 370 


25: 9, 10 


138 


8:6-21. . 


316 


25:4 


221 


25: 20-22 

25:23 


120 

229, 231 


S: 14-18.. 
8:17 


316 

38 


25: 8 


16 


25 : 11-13 


317 


25 : 29, 31 


31 


8 : 24, 25 


317 


26:38-41 


188 


25:36,37 


163 


9: 1-5 


262 


26:54,55 


229 


25 : 39, 40, 43. 


56 


9: 5-14... 


. 257, 258, 283 


26:65 


236 


25:39, 47 


56 


9:11 


72 


27: 1 


51 


25:42-55 


56 


10 : 1-10. 


139, 147 


27:1-11 


40 


25:47-55 


57 


10:4 


190 


27:4; 36 


... 229 


26:5 


139 


10:9 


241 


27:17 


108 


26:26 


.... 68, 98 


10:10.... 


. 130, 273, 275 


27: 18-23 


192 


26:30 


369 


10:25 


240 


! 27:21 


326 


26:46 

27 


359 

319 


10- 33.... 


295 


28, 29 25' 

28:9 


, 340 349 


10:35 


294 


109 


27: 1-33 


359 


11:5 


71 


28:9,10 


351 


27:6 


38 


11:8 


65, 80 


28 : 11-15 


130 


27:9, 10 


362 


11:16.... 


.147,191,294 


28:17 


267 



400 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



28:19-24 


267 


12 : 2-4, 29-31 


193 


19:3 


166 


24: 1-4 46,47,194 


28:26 


123 


12: 12,18 


57 


19: 4 


133 


24:4 43 


28:26-31 


269 


12: 15 


. 72, 329 


19:5 


156 


24:5 46,236 


29 257 


340, 349 


12: 18 


329 


19: 12 


206,213 


24:6 66 


29:1 


130, 146 


12: 19 


329 


19: 13,19, 


20 218 


24:6,7,17,18 56 


29 : 5, 11, 16, 22, 31. 343 


12:31 


372 


19: 14 


118, 193, 232 


24: 7...194,218,220,225 


29:7-11 


278 


13:5 


220 


19: 15 


215 


24:8 319 


29: 12-38 


272 


13:5,11 


218 


19: 15,16 


193 


24:8,9 194 


29:35-38 


271 


13:9 


217,221 


19: 15-21. 


193, 215 


24:13 27 


30:2 


359 


13: 12-18 


193 


19: 16, 17 


210 


24:13,17 89 


30:3-12 


359 


13:13 


32 


19: 16-21. 


220 


24: 14,15 193 


31:6 


147, 236 


13: 14 


214 


19:17 


320 


24: 16 219 


31: 14 


211, 236 


13: 15 


221 


19:18 


214 


24: 19-22 124,194 


31: 19 


354 


13: 16 


227 


19:21 


219 


25:1 215 


31:22 


156 


14: 1 60 


104, 106 


20: 1 


236 


25: 1-3 194,223 


31:27 


240 


14: 1-20 


193 


20 : 2-4 ... 


236,320 


25:2 217 


31:32 


107 


14:3-8 


116 


20:5 


26 


25: 3 220 


31:50 


100, 101 


14:7 


78 


20 : 5, 8, 9 


191 


25:4 78,112,233 


32:1 


107 


14:21 


. 77, 112 


20:5-9.... 


236 


25:5 42 


32:34-38 


32 


14:22-27 


347 


20:6 


128 


25: 5-10 194 


32:41 


31 


14: 23 


128 


20:7 


... 44, 45, 46 


25:7 213 


33: 2 


147 

31 


14: 23-27 

14: 27-29 


329 

329 


20: 10 

20 : 10-14, 


240 

19, 20... 235 


25:7-10 43 


34:4 


25:9 37,96 


35: 1-34 


223, 332 


14 : 28, 29.. 120 


, 330, 347 


20: 10-20. 


193 


25:11,12 194,223 


35:16 


157 


15: 1-11 


119, 120 


20:16,17 


235 


25:13 104 


35:24 


211 


15:12 


57 


20:18 


193,235 


25: 13-15 180 


35:30 


215 


15:12-18 


193, 230 


20: 19 


128 


25: 13-16 163,194 


36 


230 


15: 13-15 


56 


21:1-9.... 


193,338 


26: 2 331 


36:6-9 


40 


15: 15 


56 


21 : 8, 21 .. 


218 


26:2,4 156 






15: 19,20 


330 


21 : 10-14. 


. 49, 193, 242 


26: 2-11 270, 347 






16:1-17 


257 


21 : 15-17. 


40, 194 


26: 12 330 


DEUTERONOl 


16:2 


265 


21: 17 


40 


26:14 61 






16:2,16,17... 


262 


21: 18 


223 


27:4,8 151 


1: 13-18 


210 


16:3 


267 


21 : 18-20. 


. ... 216, 220 


27:17 118,232 


1: 16 


215 


16:4 


67 


21 : 18-21. 


194 


27:20,22,23 42 


1: 16, 17 


214 


16:7 


80 


21: 19 


213, 215 


28:4 107 


1: 17 


210 


16: 8 


267 


21: 20 


215 


28: 12 163 


1:28 


32 


16:9 


123 


21:22 


221 


28:68 172 


1:31 


39 


16: 11,14 


.. 57, 84 


21 : 22, 23 


194,221 


31:9 319 


2:23 


17 


16: 14 


. 52,329 


21:23 


221,222 


31:13 39 


3:4,5 


36 


16: 18 


191 


22: 1 


232 


31: 14 294 


3:5 


31 


16: 18-20.. 190,193,211 


22:1,4... 


112,194 


31: 26 292 


3: 11 


181 


16:19 


214 


22:4 


233 


32: 13 128 


4:3 


369 


16: 19,20 


193 


22:5 


87 


32: 14 109,112 


4:9 


39 


16: 21 


371 


22 : 5, 9-12 


194 


33:2 100 


4: 15,19 


193 


17:2-5 


193 


22:6,7.... 


78, 194 


33: 19 170 


4:41-43 


223 


17:2-6 


220 


22: 8.... 25, 


194, 232, 299 


33:24 128 


5: 14 


. 57, 233 


17:4 


214 


22:9 


123 


33: 29 243 


5:15 


56 


17:5 


33 


22: 10.112,118,122,233 


34:8 60,137 


6:3 


69 


17:6 


215 


22: 11 


86,87 




6:4-9 


.. 24, 313 


17:6,7 


193 


22: 12 


89,315 


JOSHUA. 


6 : 4-9, 13-22 . 


100 


17:7 


217, 221 


22: 13-21. 


.46,193,217 


6:7 


39 


17: 7,12,13... 


218 


22: 15 


215 


1: 10 191 


6:9 


. 23, 147 


17 : 8-13... 190 


,193,211 


22: 18 


223 


2: 1 240 


6: 11 


35 


17: 12 


213, 320 


22:21,22, 


24 218 


2:6 25 


7-3 . 


49 

43 

193 


17: 12,13 

17: 14-20 

17: 15 


220 

195, 196 
197 


22:22 

22 : 23-29. 
22 : 28, 29 


46 

44 


2- 15 24 


7: 3,4 


2:19 82 


7:5,25,26.... 


50 


3: 2 191 


8:8 


75 


17: 16 


164, 237 


22:29 


45, 224 


4: 19 295 


8: 8, 9 


64 


17: 16,17 

17: 17 


163 

41 


23:1 

23:2 


43, 193 

43,50 


5: 10 262, 295 


8:9 


157 


6:4 109 


8: 13 


107 


17: 19 


197 


23:2-8.... 


194 


6:5 139,146 


10: 1-5 


294 


18: 1,2 


328 


23:3 


43 


6:9, 13 240 


10: 9 


328 


18:2 


329 


23:15 


57 


6: 20 241 


10 • 19 


52 

69 


18- 3 


332 


23: 15,16. 
23: 16,17 


194 


7: 3 4.... .. 36 


11: 9 


18:3,4 


329, 341 


233 


7: 14 217 


11: 10 118 


128, 184 


18:4 


' 74 


23: 17 


371 


7: 14, 16-18 188 


11: 13-21 


. 24, 313 


18:9-14 


193, 377 


23: 17,18. 


50, 194 


7: 15 221 


11: 19 


39 


18: 10 


193, 372 


23: 18 


113, 359 


7: 17 189 


11:20 


147 


18: 15 


379 


23: 19,20. 


194 


7: 21 175 


11: 24 


232 

234 


18: 15-21 


191 


23 : 21-23.. 
23.25 


359 

.... 123,232 


7:26 68 


12:2,3 


19: 1-13 


193, 223 


8 252 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



401 



8:11-19 


241 


6:2 


14 


2:4 


54 


8:25 


36 


6: 19 6 


', 80, 156 


2:5 


119 


8: 29 


63, 221 


6:25,26 


370 


2:9,15,16 


124 


8: 32 


151 


6:28 


371 


2:14 


34, 69, 73, 82 


8:33 


212 


6:34,35 


237 


2:23 


123 


9:4 


87 


6: 35 


192 


3:2 


125 


9:6 


295 


7: 10,11 


240 


3:3 


.... 105, 106 


10:6 


295 


7 : 16 146, 


240, 241 


3:7 


82, 126 


10:9 


240 


7:16-18 


240 


3:15 


91 


10: 10 


14 


7:19 


134 


4: 1-3 


33 


10:13 


147 


7: 24 


237 


4: 1-9 


212 


10: 16 


14 


8: 1-3,22,23.. 


192 


4:3 


230 


10:26 


221 


8:2 


124 


4:7 


. 43, 96, 232 


11:6,9 


237 


8:7,16 


224 


4:9, 11.... 


190 


11:7 . w . 


240 


8:14 


147 


4: 11 


... 37,45,46 


11: 13 


32 


8:22,23 


195 






11:17 


370 


8: 24, 26 


101 






12: 7 


370 


8:24-27 193 

8: 26... 88, 100,101,115 


1 SAMUEL. 


13:23 


31 


14:4 


332 


8:27 


367 


1 : 3-7 


262 


14:6 


295 


8:32 


59 


1 : 7, 9, 24. 


295 


15: 16 


45, 241 


8:33 


370 


1:9 


284 


15:45 


..... 31 


9:4 


370 


1: 11 


104,360 


15:59 


375 


9: 18 


49 


1:23 


38 


17:3 


229 


9:53 


252 


1:27 


37 


18:1,10 


295 


9:56 


133 


2:9 


317 


18:6,8,9 


147 


11: 5,6 


237 


2: 18 


86, 323 


19:28 


170 


11:12 


240 


2:19-. 


.. 50, 90,159 


19:38 


375 


11:22 


372 


2:22 


295 


19- 50 


192 


11:30-40 

11:34 


360 

139, 142 


3- 3 ... 


... 284 


19:51 


3:3,15.... 


295 


20:6 


211 


11:35 


97 


4:4 


,237 


21 


332 


12:7,8 


212 


4: 7 


133 


21:41 


35 


14:3 


192 


4: 11 


295 


22 : 12, 19, 29.. 


295 


14:8 


45 


5:2 


373 


22: 14 


189 


14:10 


46 


6:7 


112 


24: 1 


190, 212 


14: 12 


54 


6:7,8 


169 


24: 1,2,19,21 


190 


14: 12,13 


90 


6: 12 


166 


24: 1-32 


192 


14: 12,17 


45 


6: 14 


156 


24:2,14 


364 


15:1 


Ill 


6: 18 


31 


24: 13 


32 


15:18 


192 


7:5-10.... 


352 


24: 14 


365 


16:9 


87 


7:9 


237, 339 


24:31 


189 


16:21™, 


157, 227 


8: 10-18.. 


195 


24:32 


177 


16:23 


373 


8: 11,12.. 


238 






16:25 


54 


8:12 


238 


JUDGES. 


16:31 

17:4 


59 

157 


8:13 

9:11 


68,80 

50 


1: 1,2 


326 


17:5 


364 


9:13 


81 


1 : 3, 17, 22-25 


192 


17:5-13 


192, 193 


9:22 


84 


1: 12 


241 


17: 10 


178 


9: 22-24... 


80 


1:26 


32 


18:31 


.192, 295 


9:24 


84 


1 : 33 


375 


19:1,2 


192 


10: 1 


76 


2: 10 


192 


19: 4-6 


82 


10:1,24.. 


196 


2: 11-13 


370 


19:6 


29 


10:1,25.. 


197 


3: 15, 16, 21... 


248 

93 

21 


19: 18 

19: 22-30 


192, 295 
49 


10: 5 


140, 145 


3: 16 


10: 8 

10:19 


352 

190 


3:20 


20: 10 


192, 237 


3: 23, 25 


23 


20: 16 


248 


10 : 19-22. 


326 


3:27 


146, 237 


20:18,23 


326 


10:21 


188 


3: 31 


122 

251 


20:27 

20:28 


237 

192, 317 


11 • 5 .... 


. 119 


4:3 


11:7 


122,237 


4: 4 


51 


20:31 


166 


11: 11 


134, 238, 240 


4: 5 


215 


20:48 


227 


11 : 14, 15 


352 


4:5-10 


237 


21: 10 


227 


12:3 


117 


4:13 


166 


21: 16 


192 


12 : 16, 17 


124 


5 


148, 241 


21: 19 


192, 273 


13:2 


238 


5: 8 


249 

192 

170 

132 


21:19,21 52 

RUTH. 


13 • 3 .... 


237 


5: 14-18 


13: 6 


14 


5: 17 

5:20 


13:9 

13:19 


237 

248, 249 


5:28 


22 


1:17 


59 


13 : 19-21. 


155 


5:30 


88 


1:22 


139 


13:20 


121,157 



14:3 317 

14: 14 119, 182 

14: 18 237 

14:25 70 

14:25,27 70 

14:37 237 

14:37-4-2 326 

14:40 217 

14:41 326 

14:50 199 

14:52 238 

15:3 115 

15: 22 353 

16: 1 109 

16:2... 352 

16: 18 110,139 

16:20 79, 111 

17 241 

17:4 181 

17:5 157,245 

17:5-7 242 

17:7 157 

17:17 64 

17: 18 70,238 

17:25 241 

17: 34,35 109 

17:38 245 

17:40 110,248 

17:43 98 

17:45 249 

17:51 221 

18:4 90,97 

18: 6 139,143,241 

18:6-8 51 

18:10 249 

18:11 249 

18: 13 238 

18:25 44 

19:10 249 

19:13,14 364 

19: 13,16 112 

19:15 26 

19:20 140 

19:24 90,97 

20:2-12 104 

20:5,6, 24. 29 276 

20:5, 24,27 137 

20:20 54 

20:24 29 

21:3-6 293 

21:5 358 

21:8 249 

21:9 241 

22:7 238 

22:17 220 

22:18 86 

23:2 237 

23:2,4,6,9-12.... 326 

23:7 32 

24:2 238 

24:3-10 14 

25:1 61 

25:2 52,107 

25:4 109 

25:6 53 

25:7 109 

25:10 57 

25:18 64,74,126 

25:42 168 

26:4 240 

26:7 249 

26:10 135 



20 



402 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



26:20 72 

27:9 115 

28:23 28 

28:24 67 

29:2 238 

30:12 74,126 

30: 14 200 

30:17 115 

30:24,25 240 

30:29 162 

31:5 248 

31:8-13 59 

31:10 241,373 

31:13 60 



2 SAMUEL. 

1: 10 97,100,197 

1: 15 220 

1:17 140 

1: 21 243 

1:23 241 

1:24 88 

2:14 54 

2:14 241 

2:18 241 

2:23 249 

2:28 146 

3:3 43,166 

3:17 133 

3:31 92 

3:34 227 

3:35 61 

4: 12 220,221 

5:3 197 

5:23 241 

6: 5 143 

6:5,14 140 

6:6.... 112 

6:13 ... 181 

6:14 86 

6:15 146 

6:16 22,85 

6: 17 295 

6:19 67 

6:20 90 

7:2 294 

7:6 284 

7: 13 296 

7: 14 223 

8: 1 200 

8: 2 241 

8:2,7,8,10 198 

8:7 238,243 

8: 16 199 

8: 17 197 

8: 18 200 

10:4 89 

10:9-14 238 

11: 1 237 

11:2 25 

11:4 358 

11:9 21 

11: 11 12,237 

11:20,21,24 252 

12:3 108 

12:31 19,157 

13:6 67 

13:8 50 

13:18 88 

13:23 109 



13:24 52 

13:29 237 

13:31 60 

14:2 76,105 

14:25 104 

14:26 104, 177,180 

15:1 33 

15:2 197 

15: 10 146 

15: 18-22 200 

15:30 60,89,95 

15:32-34 200 

16: 1 126 

16:4 229 

17: 1 240 

17:18 35 

17:23 168 

17: 28 26, 64, 72 

17:29 69 

18: 1 238 

18: 2 238,240 

18:9 116,237 

18:18 62 

18:24 32 

19:4 38,60 

19: 10 196 

19: 11 190 

19: 18 '. 166 

19: 29 229 

19: 35 140 

20:1,22 146 

20:8 89,93,248 

20:12 166 

20:19 31 

20:22 241 

20:23 199,200 

20:24 199,200 

20:26 200 

21:9 123,139 

21:10 59 

22:35 156 

23:20 72 

23:21 98 

24 235 

24:16 124 

24: 17 108 

24: 22 125,156 

24:24 178 



1 KINGS. 

1:5 33 

1:9 112 

1:25 84 

1:30 197 

1:33,38,44 116 

1:35,38 197 

1:39 196 

1: 40 139, 145 

2:5 95 

2: 19 197 

2:22 197 

2:25 220 

2: 25,34,46 200 

2:26,27 295 

2:27 317 

2:27,35 197 

2:32 199 

2:36 226 

2:40 168 

3:4 295 



3:16-18 51 

3: 17 197 

3:21 38 

3:26 216 

4:3 199 

4:4 199 

4:5 200 

4:6 200 

4:6,7 200 

4:21 198 

4:22,23 79,199 

4:23 112 

4:25 74 

4: 26 133 

4:27 238 

4:28 114 

5: 1-5 296 

5: 11 76, 163, 164 

6 296 

6:1 138 

6: 1,38 136 

6: 2 300 

6:2,16, 20 300 

6: 7 299 

6: 21 300 

6:22 292 

6:23-28 301 

7:7 197,215 

7: 10 299 

7: 15 157,296 

7:18 75 

7:23,26 301 

7: 26 181 

7: 26,38 182 

7:27,32,35 302 

7:27-39 302 

7:38 302 

7:48 301 

7:49 294 

8 282 

8:1,9 292 

8:2 136,271 

8:2,65 273 

8:31 216 

8: 63 108 

9: 11 157 

9: 19 237 

9:25 273 

9:26 164 

9:28 199 

10:1 54 

10:2 115 

10: 11,22 168 

10: 12 140,143 

10: 14, 15 199 

10: 15 164 

10: 16,17 242 

10: 17 243 

10: 22 157 

10:25 116 

10:26 237 

10:28 162 

10:28,29 164 

10:29 113,178,251 

11:5 371 

11:7 367 

12:4 199 

12:6 189 

12: 11, 14 224 

12: 18 167,169 

12: 21 238 

12:21-24 198 



12:27-33 273 

12:28 366 

12:28,29 112 

12:33 197 

13: 13 118 

13:22 59 

14:10 34 

14: 11 59,113 

14:24 50 

14:28 238 

15: 14 367 

16:4 113 

16:24 32,179 

16:32 371 

17:6 82 

17:14 66 

18:4,13 14 

18: 19 369,370, 371 

18: 26-29 369 

18:30-38 352 

18: 36 367 

19:9-13 14 

19:13 89 

19: 14 367 

19: 19 119,122,161 

19:21 156 

2J: 16 82 

20:27 240 

20:31 242 

20:34. 34,159 

21 230 

21:2 72,128 

21:4 197 

21:8 99 

21:8,11 148 

21:10 221 

21:11 213 

21:12 197 

21: 19 113 

21: 27 87,97 

22:6 237 

22:10 89 

22:17 108 

22:34 245 

22:39 22 

22:43 367 

22:48 157,164 



2 KINGS. 

1:2 24 

1 : 2, 3, 16 370 

1:4 26 

1:8 86,93 

1:9 238 

2:13 89 

2:20 80 

2:23 104 

3:4 108,199 

3:11 81 

3:25 248 

3:27 372 

4: 10 26,28 

4:23 276 

4:24 118 

4:29 53,97 

4:38 80 

4:38-41 72.73 

4:42 64,66 

5:7 97 

5:17 116 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



403 



5:18 373 

6: 22 241 

6:2.5 116,182 

6:26-29 51 

7: 1 33,66 

7: 3 356 

8:3 230 

8:9 115 

8:29 154 

9:1 97 

9: 13 146,197 

9: 25 251 

9: 27 169 

9: 30 105 

9:30-32 22 

9:36 113 

9:37 119 

10:1 133,148 

10: 22 89,97,369 

11:1,3 197 

11:2 28 

11:4 138,199 

11:4-18 196 

11:10 241 

11:12 196 

11:14 141,147 

11:18 321 

11:19 197 

12:1 138 

12:2 321 

12:7 320 

12:9 319 

12: 10 174 

12:13 147 

12:16 343 

13: 7 125 

14:8 240 

15:1 138 

15: 19, 20 198 

16:4 129 

16:17 34 

17:6 201, 380 

17:24 380 

17:26,27 380 

18:4 197,368 

18:11 380 

18:17 85, 88,159 

18: 18, 37 199 

19:2 200,321 

19:26 25 

19:28 114 

20:7 74,154 

20:9-11 134 

21:5 299 

21:13 80 

21: 18 129 

21:18-26 63 

22:4 320, 321 

22:14 51,200 

23:4. 371 

23:5 132 

23:7 50 

23:11 , 114 

23:12 299 

23:17 62 

23:21 262 

23:30 196 

23:35 198 

24:8 133 

24:12, 15 197 

25:4 128 

25:8 - 199, 302 



25:8, 12 201 

25:8,13 302 

25 : 18..299, 319, 321, 328 

1 CHRONICLES. 

2:34,35 40 

2:35 57 

4:14 159 

4:21 86 

4:23 159 

5:1 40 

5: 5 370 

6:54 17 

7:14 43 

8:30 370 

8:40 246 

10:10 241 

11:3 197 

11:6 241 

12:8 241 

12:14 238 

12:18 53 

12: 24 249 

12: 40 74, 126 

15: 1 295 

15: 16,17 197 

15:17 140 

15:19 140 

15:20,21 142 

15:23 320 

15:28 146 

15:29 22 

16:5 140 

16:39 295 

16:39-42 295 

18:7 243 

18:15-17 200 

21:23 125 

21:29 295 

22 296 

23:4....- 191, 212 

23:4, 28 320 

23:5,6 140 

23:22 40 

23:29 180 

23:31 130 

24:3 295,317 

25:1-6 140 

25:6 320 

25:6,7 140 

26:29 191,212 

27:1 238 

27:25-31 200 

27:26 119 

27:30 114,117 

27:32 200 

29:1, 19 284 

29:4 157 



2 CHRONICLES. 

1 : 3-6, 13 295 

1: 16 164 

2:4 130 

2-4 296 

2:10, 15 76 

2:16 170 

3:3 181 

3:10, 13 301 



3: 14 300 

3: 15 296 

4:1 301 

4:2, 5 301 

4:6 302 

4:9 299 

5:3 271,273 

5: 5 295 , 

5:12 141,147 

5:13 142 

7:6 141,320 

7:8 273 

7:8, 9 271 

8 : 13...130, 270, 273, 280 

8:14 320 

8: 17, 18 163 

9:1 54 

9:10 163 

9: 16 242 

9:24 116 

9:25 133 

11:21, 22 197 

12:9 243 

13:3 238 

13:5 347 

13:12 241 

13:12, 14 147 

13:15 241 

14:5 369 

14:8 238,246 

16: 10 226 

16: 12 154 

16:14 58.59 

17:2 252 

18:4 237 

18: 15 216 

18:33 245 

19:5-8 212 

19:11 191,212 

20:36 170 

21:3 197 

21:19 59 

23:4 320 

23:18 320 

24:12 157 

24:16 59 

26: 10 Ill, 119 

26:14.-238,242,243,245 

26:18,19 197 

27:4 Ill 

27:5 163,198 

28:8-15 241 

28: 15 168 

29:4 32 

29: 16 319 

29:18 301 

29: 25 140. 141 

29:26 141 

30: 1 148 

30:15 262 

30:21-24 265 

31:2 320 

31:11 329 

31:13 328 

32:3, 4. _ 35,252 

32:6 32 

33:5 299 

33:17 367 

34:4 369 

34:22 97 

35:3 292 

35:4. 320 



35:6 262 

35:8 265 

35:13 80,268 

35:15 141 

35:25 60 

36:9 133 

36:18 302 

36:20, 21 120 



EZRA. 

2: 36-39 321 

2: 65 57, 140 

2: 66 116 

2:69 177 

3: 6 276 

3:7 164 

3:12 302 

4:7 148 

4:9 381 

4: 13,20 166,208 

6:10 340 

6: 11 221 

6: 19 262 

7:24 166,208 

7:25 213 

7:26 226 

8:22, 31 168 

8:27 177 

8: 29 303 

9:8 17 

9:12 43 

10:2,3,14-44 43 

10:6 303 

10: 8 228,229 

10:14. 206,213 



NEHEMIAH. 

1:1 136 

1:2 85 

2:1 85,136 

2:6,9 168 

3:3 23 

3:15 128 

3:15, 18 203 

3:30 303 

3:31 34 

4:13, 16 242 

4:16 245,281 

5:18 79 

6:15 136 

7:63 40 

7:68 116 

7:70-72 177 

8:1,3 32 

8:2 276 

8:4 313 

8:8 310 

8:15-18 272 

8:17 273 

8: 18 , .... 274 

10:30 43 

10:31 120,165 

10:33 293 

10:34 283 

10:37 64,303 

11:11 328 

11:17, 22 141 



404 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



12:1-7... 




321 


24:10 


90 


30:11 


60 


12:28....'. 




141 


24:15 


87 


32:9 


114 


12:31 


141 


251 


25:5 


132 


33:2 


144 


12:44 


303 


320 


26:13 


130 


35:2 


242 


13 : 5, 12 . 




128 


27: 18 


12 


35:5 


126 


13: 16 


71 


164 


28:1-11 


157 


35:7 


72 


13 : 16-22. 




165 


28: 17 


24 


36:9 


293 


13 : 25, 29 




. 43 


29:3 


29 


39:12 


52 


13:31 




283 


29:6 


128 


45:1 


150 








29: 14 


94 


45:3 


93 








30:1 


110 


45:8 


106 


ESTHJ 




30:3, 6 


15 


47:5 


146 








30:4 


72 


48:7 


172 


1:5 




128 


30:31 


146 


51:7 


357 


1: 6 




29 


31:6 


180 


52:2 


105 


1:7 




84 
22 


31:10 

31: 13, 14 


65 

58 


56: 8 


60 


2 : 13, 14 . 


58:4, 5.... 


378 


2:16 




136 
221 


31:20 

31:35 


86. 

148, 217 


60:8 


96, 232 


2:23 


62:9 


180 


3:7 




136 


36:8 


227 


68: 13 


88 


3:7, 13.. 




281 


36:14 


50 


68:25 


51, 140, 142 


4:16 




281 


38:3 


97 


69:12 


52 


5:4 




22 


38:4 


132 


69:25 


17 


5: 14 




221 
251 


38: 7 

38:31 


132 

130, 132 


71: 3 


15 


6:8 


73:6 


97, 100 


6:12 




89 


38:33 


132 


74:5 


249 


7:1 




22 


38:39 


...- 72 


74: 5, 6.... 


156 


7:9 




221 


38:40 


12 


74:8 


310 


8:8 




99 


39:9, 10 


113 


74: 11 


93 


8:9 




136 


39: 10 


122 


75:3 


132 


8:15 


88,9 


39:24 


146 


75:8 


74 


9:17 




280 


40:21, 22 


128 


76:3 


243 


9 : 17-19, 


22 


281 


41:1, 7 


71 


77:20 


Ill 


9: 19 




31 


41: 2 


72 


78 : 58-60. 


352, 367 


9 : 24, 27. 




281 


41:5 


40 


78:60 


295 








42: 11 


177 


80:5 


182 








42: 12 


114 


80:8-13... 


73, 120 


JOI 




42: 14 


105 


81:3 


146 












81:6 


19 


1:3 




114 






82:1 


310 


1: 14 




122 


PSALMS. 


83: 10 


119 


1:20 




104 






92: 12 


75 


2:12 




60 


1:4 


126 


98:6 


146 


3:1 




135 


2:12 


197 


102:3 


26 


4:19 




20 


3:3 


. 25, 243 


103:13.... 


39 


5:4 




215 
133 


4:7 


124, 139 
284 


104:2 

105:16.... 


293 


5: 19 


5:7 


98 


6:2 




180 


6:12, 46 


142 


105: 18.... 


157 


6:4 




246 


7: 10 


243 


106:28.... 


372 


6:6 


.... 73, 76 


,113 


7: 13 


246 


107: 16.... 


32, 157 


7:6 




159 


8:3 


132 


107:23.... 


168 


8:11 




150 


9, 10, 25, 34. 37, 111, 


107 : 23-30 


172 


9:6 




132 


112, 119, 145 


152 


108:9 


96 


9:7 




132 


9: 15 


72 


109:6 


216 


9:9 




130 


9, 22, 45, 56, 57 


,58, 


113:9 


37 


10: 10.... 




69 


59, 60, 69, 75 


80.. 142 


113-118.... 


263, 264, 273 


10:16.... 




72 


10:9 


12 


119: 105... 


30 


13:4 


154 


,155 


12:6 


157 


124:7 


72 


13:26 




217 


16:4 


77 


126:5 


124 


14: 17.... 




99 
127 


18: 28 


30 


127 : 3-5... 
127:5 


37 


15:33.... 


18:32 


97 


215 


16:12.... 




54 


18:34 


156, 246 


128:3 


127 


16: 15.... 




87 


18:42 


34 


129:6 


25 


18: 6 




29 
135 


19:4 

21:9 


17 

68 


129: 7 

142:3 


123 


18:20.... 




72 


19:24.... 


150, 151 


,157 


22: 12 


112 


144: 12.... 


37 


20:24 


156,246 


22:21 


113 


147 : 4 


132 


21 : 12 


110, 142 


,146 


23:2 


110 


149:3 


85, 142 


21: 17.... 


'.'".y.'.'iig 


. 29 

,232 


23:4 

23:5 


110 

. 84, 105 


149: 8 


227 


24:2 


150:3 


146 


24: 3 




117 
14 


24:7-10 

25: 15 


141 

72 


150:4 

150:5 


85, 142, 146 
143 


24:8. 





PROVERBS. 

1:7 39 

1:9 100,102 

1:20,21 33 

1:21 312 

2:17 45 

3:10 74 

4:9 102 

5, 7 50 

6:23 30 

6:25 105 

6:31 225 

7:6 22 

7:8 32 

7:8-20 164 

7:17 103 

7:23 72 

8:19 157 

8:3 215 

9:2, 5 74 

9:10 39 

10:1 39 

10:20 157 

11: 1 180 

11:22 101,102 

12:27 72 

13:24 39,223 

14:4 112 

15:17 79 

16: 11 180 

16:31 104,105 

16:33 217 

17:3 157 

18:18 217 

19:10 56 

19:18 216 

19:24 80 

20:1 74 

20:23 180 

20:26 125 

21:9 25 

21:17 84 

22: 22 215 

22:26, 27 362 

22:28 118,232 

22:29 161 

23:10 118,232 

23:13 223 

23:14 39 

23:29-35 74 

23:34 173 

25:11 75 

25: 12 101 

25:16,27 70 

25: 18 249 

25:20 157 

25:24 25 

26:3 114 

26:14 23 

26:19 54 

26:23 159 

27:9 103 

27:15 25 

29:15 39 

29:24 216 

30: 17 216 

30:33 69 

31 51 

31:13 86 

31: 13, 19, 22 159 

31:14 162 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



405 



31: 15 82,161 

31:18 30 

31:19 50 

31:21 50,88 

31:22 87 

31:22, 24 159 

31: 24 90, 165 



ECCLESIASTES. 

1:6 132 

2:5 128 

2:6 35 

9:7,8 84 

10:16 82 

12:4 32,66 

12:5 76 

12: 11 18,111,122 



SONG OF SOL- 
OMON. 

1:5 16,112 

1:10 100 

1:14 73 

2:3 75 

2:5 75 

2:14 15 

2:15 126 

3:2 32 

3:6 103 

3:6,7,9 170 

3:11 46 

4:1,3 92 

4:2 108,109 ! 

4:4 238,24:} i 

4:9 100 i 

5: 5 23,106 

5:7 91 ! 

6:7 92 ! 

6: 11 76 

7:1 95 

7:2 74 

7:8 75 



3:23 90,94 

3:23,21 91 

3:24 105 

5:2 12, 73,122 

5:4-6 126 

5:18 169 

5:22 74 

5:24 119 

5:27 94,97 

6:1 91 

6:6 157 

6: 13 202 

7:3 35,88 

7:3, 20 159 

7:15-22 70 

7:18 113 

7:20 105 

7:21, 22 109 

7:22 112 

7:23 178 

8: 1 148, 150 

8:8 240 

9:3 124 

9:4 98 

9:5 89, 95 

9:10 19 

0:1 217 

0:6 34 

0:14 76 

0: 15.. 156 

0:17 293 

0: 22 202 

0:24 98 

0:26 224 

2:3 274 

4:12 130 

4:19 61 

5:3 26 

5:5 11 

6:8-10 73 

6: 10 126 

7:5 123 

7:8..._ 369 



99 



ISAIAH. 

1:6 76,154 

1:8 13,72,128 

1:13 276 

1: 17 .... 215 

1:22 74 

1:23 218 

1:29 129 

2:2 312 

2:4 122 

2:6, 7 163 

2:19 15 

3: 3 200 

3: 16 88, 103 

3:18 103 

3: 18-25 164 

3: 19 101 

3: 20 105 

3:21 99,101 

3:22 91 



8:2 150 

9:8 71 

9: 11 200 

9: 18 148 

20:2 90 

21:5 240,243 

21:7 115 

22:1 25 

22: 6 243 

22:9 252 

22:9,11 35 

22:16 63 

22:18 54 

22:21 97 

22:22 23 

22:23 17 

22:24 143, 144 

23: 13 252 

23: 18 162 

24:8 142 

24:20 13 

25: 10 125 

27:9 369 

28:1-7 74 

28:5 102 

28:7 84 

28:23-29 129 

28:24 122 

28:24-29 121 



25 120, 123 

25-27 73 

27 121, 124, 125 



28, 

1 

9, 11 
11.... 
16.... 

21 

13.... 

24 118,125 

28 114 

29 145 

32 142 

10 138 

20 118, 122 



2 

3, 22.. 

11 

21-36. 

22 

27 

30 



20 
... 15 
... 172 
... 173 
... 113 
... 150 
... 159 
... 199 
... 148 
... 198 
... 321 
25,88 
... 138 
... 134 
... 17 
... 154 
... 166 
... 108 



12 

21 

3 

11 

12 180, 182 

22 132 

26 130, 132 

7 157 

15 

25 

13 

28 

1 

2 

1 

6 

2 65,91,92 

13 132, 135 



125 
159 
156 
111 
32 

157 | 
374, 
ISO 



2. 

16 

20 

7 

10 

7 

2 



2-16 
100 
5, 72 
168 . 

97 I 
108 

17 
310 

74 

15 
103 



6 115 

3, 10 94, 105 

10 46 

8 74, 100 

1 89 

2, 3 126 

13 114 

3 129 

4 80 

11 375 

17 79,129 

20 170 



JEREMIAH. 

2:13 35 

2:22 157,159 

2:23 115 

4:3 122 

4:5, C 237 

4:11 125 

4:30 88,105 

5:27 72 

6:4 237 

6:20 „ 352 

6: 29 157 

7:9 369 

7:18 371 

7:22 352 

7:29 60, 104 

8:2 119 

8:8 150 

8:11 154 

8:17 378 

9:19,20 60 

9: 22 119, 124 

10:2 132 

10:9 88 

11: 13 369 

11:16 127 

13:1 93 

13:22 91 

15: 12 156, 157 

15:17 54 

16: 4 59, 119 

16: 6 60, 104 

16:7 61 

17: 1 150, 157, 159 

17:14 154 

17:25 33 

19:1 321 

19:13 25 

20:1 321 

20:2 226,227 

22:14. 20,22 

22:24 99 

25:10 66 

25: 11 133 

25:38 12 

26:11, 12 213 

28: 13 153 

29:5 128 

29:10 133 

29:26 226,227,321 

31:4 142 

31:27 107 

31:35 132 

32:1-15 232 

32:2 226 

32:7 230 

32:8 227 

32:9 174 

32: 10 148, 180 

32: 29 25,369 

33: 1 226 

33:13 110 

33: 18, 21 352 

33:22 130 

33:25 132 

34:5 59 

34: 18 216 

36: 10 299 

36:18, 23 150 

36:22 26 

36:23 151 



406 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



37: 15, 20 227 

37:21 34,68,159 

38:6 35 

38:6,7 226 

38:14 229 

39:2 283 

41:5 60,104 

41:9 35 

41: 17 30,167 

41:20 283 

44:19 371 

46:3 240,242 

46:4 245 

46:21 79 

46:22 249 

47:6 248 

48:7,13,46 372 

48:12 159 

48:28 15 

48:32 73 

48:38 26 

49:16 15 

49:29, 32 115 

50: 16 123 

51:1, 2 125 

51:8 154 

51:11 246 

51:20 249 

51:58 252 

52:11 227 

52:12 302 

52:12, 13 283 

52: 12, 17 302 

52:21 181 

52:24 299,321,328 



LAMENTATIONS. 

1:9 91 

2: 19 134 

3:15 72 

5:10 68 

5:13 65 

5:14 139 



EZEKIEL. 

1:4,27 156 

4:2 252 

4:3 157 

4:9 66,120 

5:1 105,159 

6:4, 6 369 

7: 12, 13 230 

7:14 237 

8:2 156 

8:14 372 

9:2 93 

9:2,11 150 

9:4-6 263 

13:10 20 

13:10,11 19 

13:11 159 

13:18,21 92 

15:2-4 126 

16:4 37 

16:8 45 

16: 10 93,95 

16: 11 100 

16: 12 101,102 



16:33-42 50 

16:38,40 46 

18:20 220 

19:4 9 72 

20:8 365 

20: 12,20 268 

20:26 336 

20:37 110 

21:3 248 

21: 21 364,379 

21:22 252 

21:26 324 

22:3 365 

22: 18 157 

23:15 94 

23:41 28,82 

24:4,5,10 80 

24:17 61,95,104 

24:17,23 94 

25:16 200 

26: 2 164 

27:5-9,27 172 

27:6,17 163 

27:12,15 162 

27:17 64,70 

27:18 86 

27:20 251 

27:24 89 

27:26 172 

29:5 59 

30:21 154 

32:14 128 

32:27 241 

33:25 77 

34:3 86 

34:5 108 

38:11 31 

39:9 243 

39:15 62 

39: 18 112 

40: 5-8 181 

40:39 343 

41:5 181 

41:8 181 

42:13 343 

42: 16-19 181 

44:17 322 

44:20 104 

44:22 43 

44:28 328 

44:29 343 

44:30 64 

46:1 276 

46: 6 130 

46: 16 230 

47:1 274 

47-16,18 13 



DANIEL. 

1:8 78 

1:20 132 

3: 5,7,10,15... 145,146 

3:6 134 

3:21 89, 90 

5:1 84 

5:7 88 

5:29 100 

6:10 22 

6:17 99 

7: 7 109 



7:9... 


105 


108 


9:9 


. 125 


8:3... 




108 


9: 11 


. 12 


8:14.. 




135 


9: 14 


. 128 


9: 24.. 




120 






10:5.. 




93 






11:30 




172 


JONAH. 




12 : 3.. 




132 


1:3 


. 168 




HOSEA. 




1:5, 6 


. 172 




1:16 


. 360 








3:6 


. 87 


2:8.... 




370 


4:5 


. 12 



3: 1.... 73,369 

3:1,2 45 

3:2 66,182 

3:4 364 

4:11 74 

4: 12 98,379 

5: 10 118,232 

6:6 353 

7:4 68 

7:4, 6 67,159 

7:8 68 

8:1 146 

9:4 61 

10: 11 112,122,125 

10:12 122 

12:7 164, 180 

13:3 26 

14:6... :... 127 



JOEL. 

1:5 74 

1:12 75 

1:14 237 

2: 23 274 

3: 10 122 

3: 13 123 

3:18 69 



AMOS. 

1:3 125,133,157 

2: 1 372 

2:6 164 

2:13 124,169 

3:2 187 

3:6 146 

3:12 29,87,109 

3:15 22 

4:1 84 

4:9 128 

5:8 130 

5:10 215 

5: 12 218 

5:22 143,341,352 

5:23 144 

5: 26 132 

6 : 4.... 26, 29, 52, 79, 82 

6:5 139,144 

6:6 84 

6:10 59 

6:11 19 

6: 12 114,122 

7: 1 139 

7:14 110,161 

8:5 164, 180 

8:6 95 

8:10 60 



MICAH. 

1:8 60 

2: 12 202 

3:3 80 

3: 11 218 

4:3 122,248 

4:4 74 

4:5 12 

4:8 Ill 

4:12 125 

5: 3 202 

5: 5 133 

6: 10 164 

6:11 104,180 

6:15 74 

7:10 34 

7: 14 110 



NAHUM. 

2: 1 249 

2: 3 157,243 

3:4 163 

3:5 91 

3:14 19,159 



HABAKKUK. 



ZEPHANIAH. 

1:4 370 

1:5 25 

1:8 88 

2:5 200 

2:9 202 



HAGGAI. 

1: 1 276 

1:4 20,22 

1:12,14 202 

2:3 302 



ZECHARIAH. 

1: 7 136 

1 : 8 114 

2:4 107 

3: 1,3 216 

3:5 324 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



407 



10... 
1-6. 



2,3.. 
11.... 

4 

5 

6,12. 

7 

9 

:2 



ECCLESIASTICTJS. 



1:11 102 

6:21 54 

7:15 228 

11:30 72 

39 I 12:11 102 

202 ! 21:21 100 

77 26: 17 294 

117 28:25 180 

364 32: 1, 2 85 

114 33:24,25,28 56 

17 38:1, 2 154 

111 38:29, 30 159 



7 110 i 39:26... 

12 174, 178 44:2-4. 

54 45 : 9. 



• 11-14*!."."".".".".".".*". 313 50:3!!!!!!'!!!!!!!!!!!! 303 



:5 

:8, 17 

: 20 

: 21 



15 
274 
114 

80 



MALACHI. 

1:8 336 

2:14 45 

2:14-16 - 48 

3:2.... 88, 135,157,159 

3:5 218 

4:1 68 

4:2 79 



TOBIT. 

1:7 330 

2:3 59 

5:14 179 

5:16 113 

7:12 46 

7:15 45 

8:19,20 84 

8:20 45,46 

10:11 45 

11:4 113 



JUDITH. 



8 

16, 21.. 

6, 7.... 

10:4 

10:21 

12: 15 

16:9 



207 
206 
35 
95 
27 
29 
95 



ADDITIONS TO 
ESTHER. 



WISDOM. 



2S1 



2:7,8 84 

2:8 102 

7:26 102 

19: 9 114 



50:5... 
50 : 15. 



BARUCH. 



1 : 2... 
3:17. 



349 



302 
72 



EPISTLE OF 
JEREMIAH. 



3-6. 
70. 



SUSANNA. 



4. .. 
5,41. 



369 

128 



128 
213 



1 MACCABEES. 

1:14...::. 54 

1:17 172 

1:22 303 

2:1 321 

4:38, 48 303 

4:49 28,294,303 

4:51 303 

4:52 812 

4:52,54,57 303 

4:57 243 

5:43, 44 373 

6:20,49,53 120 

6:35 245 

6:51 252 

7:48, 49 281 

8:22 151 

9:37-39 43 

10:20 - 327 

10:83 373 

11; 1 172 

11:4 373 

11:28 178,208 

12:6 190,207 

13:15 208 

13:27-30 62 

13:45 251 

14:5 165 

14:11,12 203 

14:24 243 



14:41 204 

14:48 232 

15:4 172 

15: 6 178 

16:8 241 



2 MACCABEES. 

1:2 282 

1:10 190 

4: 12 376 

4:12-14 54 

4: 19 178 

4: 41 249 

5:27 78 

8:22 240 

10:6 271,282 

10: 7 274 

11:8 88 

11:30,33,38 137 

12:26 373 

12:43 61 

14: 1 172 

15:36 2S0, 281 



3 MACCABEES. 
3:7, 16 102 

MATTHEW. 

1:18,19 44,46 

2:1-16 204 

2: 13-15 118 

3:4 70,86,93,115 

3:11 96 

3:12 125,126 

4:5 306 

4:21 170 

4:23 312 

5:17 219 

6:22 213 

5:31 47 

5:31, 32 48 

5:34-36 217 

5: 36 105 

5:38, 39 219 

5:41 181 

6:2 312 

6:5 33,312,314 

6:11 66 

6: 17 105 

6:19 20 

7; 9 67 

7:15 97 

7:24,25 20 

8: 2 357 

8:5 240 

8:13 134 

9:11 83 

9:15 46 

9:16 159 

9:17 127 

9:20 89 

9:20-22 358 

9: 23 58,145 

9:35 312 

9:36 108 

10: 8 357 



10:9 90, 179 

10:10 90,95,110 

10:17.-206,213,224,312 

10:27 26 

10:29 178 

11:5 357 

11:8,21 97 

11:16 52 

11:16-18 40 

11: 17 85, 145 

12:1 123 

12: 1, 2 64 

12:9 312 

13:4 122 

13:13 73 

13:33 67 

13:47 71 

13:54 311,312 

14:6 85 

14:10 : 221 

14:17 71 

14:36 89 

15:1-12 81 

15:3, 6 383 

15:4-6 359 

15:11 79 

15: 11, 17 353 

15:27 113 

15:34 71 

15:36 81 

16:5-12 337 

16:6 67 

16:18 33 

16:19 23 

16: 21 190 

17:14 53 

17:24 178 

17:27 71,178 

18:6 66,118 

18:22 133 

18:25 56 

18: 30 226 

19:3-9 48 

19:4-7 41 

19:7,8 47 

19:14 39 

19:24 116 

20: 1 119 

20: 1-5 126 

20:2 179 

20:17,29 168 

21:2 31 

21:8 97 

21:12... 179 

21:18-22 75 

21:23 190 

21:33 13,126 

21:33,34,41 127 

22:1-10 46 

22:3-7 84 

22: 11 46, 84 

22: 19 178 

22:23 386 

22:24 42 

23:5 100 

23:6 313 

23:16-22 217,388 

23: 19 339 

23:23 73 

23:24 116 

23:27 62 

23:33 73 



408 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



23:34 224,312 

23: 37 113 

24: 1,2 310 

24:41 50, 65 

25:1-10 46 

25:7 29 

25:27 179 

25: 32 Ill 

25:35 53 

26: 2, 17 265 

26:3,57 208 

26:6 357 

26:15 178 

26: 18, 19 265 

2i:23 81 

26:34 113 

26:36i 129 

26:63 216 

26:71,72 21 

27:7 61 

27:34 73 

27:39,41 266 

27:45 135 

26:47 249 

27:54 24J 

27:57,59 59 

27:59 58 

27:60 59 

27:66 62,99 

28:9 53 



MARK. 

1:7 94 

1:40 357 

2:4 27 

2: 21 159 

2: 27 259 

4:31, 32 73 

4:37 172 

4:38 28 

5:22 312 

5:26 155 

5:34 53 

5:38,39 60 

6:8 98, 179 

6:48 134 

7:1-13 81 

7:8,9,13 383 

9:3 88 

10:2-12 48 

10:4, 5 47 

10:17 53 

10:32,46 168 

11:12-14,20-23... 75 

11 :25 314 

12: 1 13 

12: 24, 27 386 

12:38 97 

12:39 84 

12:42 178 

13:9 213,224,312 

13:15 26 

13:34 21 

13: 35 134 

14: 1 265 

14: 12-16 265 

14:15 22 

14:30 113 

15: 17 88,90 

15: 23 222 



15:25 135 

15:29, 31 266 

15:44 222 

15:46 266 

16:1-1 61 



LUKE. 

1:5 321 

1:59 38 

2:4 31 

2:7 30,37 

2:8 Ill 

2:22-24 38,358 

2:29 358 

2:41, 42 262 

2: 42, 44 168 

3: 1 205 

4:21, 22 314 

5:2, 3 170 

5:5 72 

5:6 71 

5:18-25 20 

5:29 52 

6: 1 232 

6:22 228 

7:5 312 

7: 12 59,61 

7:36-38 83 

7:37 29 

7:38 85 

7:4) 76,105 

8:43 155 

8:44 89 

9:3 90,179 

9:5 97 

9:16 81 

9:53 167 

9:62 121 

10:4 53,95,104 

10:27 58 

10:30 168 

10:34 30,76,154 

10:38 31 

11:5 67 

11:7 27 

11:11,12 76 

11:37-40 354 

11:44 62 

11:52 23 

12:3 26 

12:6 178 

12: 14, 58 213 

12: 33 104 

12:38 134 

12:39 134 

13:14 312 

13: 15 117 

13: 19 128 

13: 21 67,337 

14:5 117 

14:7-11 83 

14:8, 16 84 

14:12 82 

14:17 45 

15: 4 108, 110 

15: 16 110 

15:22 95 

15: 23 52,79 

15: 25 85, 139 

15:29 Ill 



16:19 88 

17:2 118 

17:8 80,93 

17: 12 356,357 

18: 11 314 

19: 1, 28 168 

19:8 225 

21: 12 312 

22:1 265 

22:4, 52 310 

22:7, 8 265 

22:66 190 

23:35 266 

23:44 135 

23:56 266 

24:13 181 

24:28 31 

24:35 69 

24:42 71 



JOHN. 

1:27 94 

1:29 278 

1:29, 36 109 

2:2 52 

2:3,8 84 

2:20 304 

3:6 60 

3: 14 367 

3:29 46 

4:4, 45 167 

4:6 167, 168 

4:9 83 

4:20 381 

4:45 281 

5:8, 12 27 

6:4 281 

6:9,13 66 

6:11 81 

6:23 170 

7:37 274 

7:42 31 

7:49 384 

8:5 46 

8: 12 293 

8: 17 215 

9:22 228 

10:3 108 

10:4 110 

10: 11 Ill 

10: 11,12 109 

10:24 306 

11:30,31 61 

11:31 59 

11:44 58,94 

12:3 84 

12: 15 117 

12: 42 228 

13: 1 265 

13:4 93 

13:5 83 

13:23 29,31 

13:25 83 

13:26 69 

13: 28, 29 265 

14: 6 192 

14:27 53 

15:1-6 73 

15: 2-6 126 

16: 2 228 



18:28 265 

19: 14, 31 266 

19: 17 222 

19:21 266 

19:23 240 

19:31 222 

19:38, 39 266 

19:34 249 

19:41 63,129 

20:1 61 

20:7 94 

20:12 88 

21:3 170 

21:4,12 82 

21: 7 90,92 

21: 9 69,71 

21: 15, 17 Ill 



ACTS. 

1:10 88 

1:13 22 

2:5-11 392 

2:5, 9-11 271 

2:15 82 

2:42 69 

2:46 313 

3: 11 306 

4: 1 310 

4:1, 2 386 

4:3 226 

5:5 58 

5: 18 226 

5:24, 26 310 

5:40 224 

5:42 313 

6:8 174 

6:9 311 

7:43 374 

7:58 215,217,221 

8:2 58 

8:3 226 

8:28 167,169,251 

9:2 226 

9:5 122 

9:11 34 

9:20 311 

9:33,34 27 

9:37 21 

10: 1 240 

10:2, 22 394 

10: 6 159 

10:9 25 

10: 15 353 

10:22 240 

10:28 165 

12: 1 205 

12: 2 221 

12:4 134,240 

12:6 240 

12: 10 32,157 

13:5 311 

13: 15 312,314 

13: 25 55 

13: 26,43,50 394 

13: 13, 50 393 

14: 1 - 311 

14: 12 375 

15: 5 3S4 

15:9 353 

15:20,29 50,77 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS. 



409 



15:21 

16: 13 

16: 22... 


311 

311 

224 


4:9 55 

5:1 50 

5:6 337 

5:6-8 67 

5: 7, 8 263 


COLOSSIANS. 

2:8, 20 353 

3:22-25 58 

4: 14 155 

1 THESSALONIANS 

2:19 55 

5:7 82 

2 THESSALONIANS 
3:14 228 

1 TIMOTHY. 

1:10 50 

2: 9 105 

3:2 53 

4:3 81 

5:10...". 53 

5:18 112 

6:16 293 

2 TIMOTHY. 

1 : 5 39 


2:2, 3 

2:3 

3:3 

3: 4 


313 
97 
114 


16- 24 


227 

205 

311 

393 

311 

16 


173 


16- 35 39.. .. 


1 PETER. 

1: 13 

2:2 

2:9 

2:11 

2:25. 

3:2 : 

4:3 

4:9 

5:4 

2 JOHN. 

10 

12 

13 




17:1 

17:4, 17 

17:10,17 

18: 3 


5:11 83 

6:9 50 

7:5 358 

7:10-16 48 

7:20-24 58 

8:10 78 

9:9 112 

9:9, 10 233 

9: 25 55, 102 

9:26 55 

10:9 367 

10:25 78 

11: 17 24 

13: 12 102 

14:8 241 

15:41 132 

16: 8 271 




18:4, 17 

18:6 

18:8, 17 

18: 18 

18: 19, 26.... 

19: 12 

19:23-41.... 

19:24 

19: 31 


311 

9/ 

312 

362 

311 

94, 9b 

376 

157 

54 


97 
69 

315 
52 

108 

105 
50 
53 

102 


19:35 

20:9 

20: 15, 16.... 

20: 16 

20:24 

21: 1 

21: 11 


375 

24 

174 

271 

55 

174 

97 

362 

77 

306 




16:22 228 

2 CORINTHIANS. 

5:1 17 

5: 21 222,278 

6:17 79 

11:24 206,224 

11:25 168 

11:33 , 24 

12:21 50 

GALATIANS. 

1:8 228 

3:15 40 

3:28* 58 

4:3, 9..^ 353 

5:1 58 

5:9 67 

5:21 84 

6:17 99 

EPHESIANS. 

4:19 50 

5:2 339 

5:18 84 


228 
151 
39 


21 : 23, 24.... 

21:25 

21 : 28 


3 JOHN. 

5 

13 

REVELATIO] 

1:13 

1: 14 

1: 15 

2: 18 

3:4 

3:20 23 

4:8,10 

5:6 

6:2,4,5,8 

6:6 

6: 15, 16 

7:2,3 

7: 3 




21:31 

21:35, 40.... 

22:5 

22 • 23 


240 

306 

190 

97 


53 
150 

NT. 


22:29, 30.... 
23:31, 32.... 

25 : 11, 26 

23:5 

26: 7 


205 

167 

205 

384 

188 


2:5 55,102 

3:15 39 

4:8 55 

4:13 90, 151 

4:14 157 

PHILEMON. 
16 56 


26:11 

26:32 

27:3-5 

27:9 

27-28 


224 

205 

174 

280 

.. 173, 174 
81 


93 
105 
157 
157 

88 


27: 35 


HEBREWS. 

5:4 316 

5:12 69 

7:26 79 

9:4 292 

10:28 215 

10:33 55 

10:34 226 

11:37 86 

11:38 15 

12: 1, 2 55 

12:17 40 

13:2 53 

13: 11-13 280,344 

JAMES. 

1:12,24 102 

2:2.... 98 


,341 


27: 40 


174 


141 


28: 11 

28:12, 13... 
28: 16, 23... 
28: 19 


130 

174 

227 

205 


109 

114 

66 

15 




lNS. 
363 


263 
99 


ROM^ 

1 : 21 


7:9 

7:17 

8:3,4 

9:4 

9:9 

12:1 

13:8 

15:6 

18:22 

19: 1... 


55 
111 

'?92 


1 • 26, 27 


50 

228 

370 


. 263 


9:3 

11:4 


5:25,28 48 

6:5 58 

6: 14-17 242 

6:16 246 

PHILIPPIANS. 

3:14 55 

4:1 55 

4:3 51 


. 251 

102 


12: 13 

13: 1 

14: 2 


53 

187 

78 


109 

. 93 

145 




^HIANS. 

69 

; 119 


141 


1 CORIN1 

3:2 

3:9 


19:7 

19:11,14 

21:21 

22:1,3 

22:5 


48 
. 114 
. 34 
. 109 
. 29 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Abraham, 11, 16, 53, 59, 69, 107, 113, 

168. 
Acre, 119, 181. 
Acrostic, 152. 
Adjuration, 216. 
Adonis. See Tammuz. 
Adrammelech. See Remphan. 
Adultery, how punished, 46. 
Age, disguising of, 105. 
Age for military service, 236. 
Agrarian laws of Israel, 118. 
Agriculture, pursuit of, 118, 119, 122, 

155, 228. 
Ahaz, dial of, 134. 
Aholiab, 159, 285. See Oholiab. 
Alcohol, 105. 
Alcove, 16. 

Alexander, his relation to the Jews, 203. 
Almond, 76. See Nuts. 
Alraug tree, 143. 
Alphabet used for numbers, 133. 
Alphabetic writing, 147. 
Altar of burnt offering, 285. 

incense, 292. 
Amalek, war on, 241. 
Amber, 156. 

Amos, 12, 26, 29, 82, 84, 95, 132, 139. 
Anammelech, 375. 
Anchor, the, 174. 
Animal food, 76-79. 
Animals, humanity toward, 160, 232. 

how to be yoked, 112. 

unclean, 78. 
Anklets and ankle chains, 102. 
Anointing the hair, 105. 

king, 196. 
Apartments for women, 22. 
Apis, 112. 
Apple, the, 75. 
Apricot, 75. 
Aprons, 86, 96. 
Arab, 16. 

Aramaic character, 148. 
Arcade, 34. 
Architecture, 18, 20. 
A.rcturus, 130. 

410 



Aristotle, 161. 
Ark, the, 12, 291. 
Armor for soldiers, 157, 245. 
Armored stockings, 246. 
Army, 36, 234, 238. 
Army, a standing, 238. 

original composition of the Israel- 
itish, 235, 236. 

of the royal period, 238. 

the Roman, 240. 

the Isratlitish, in Canaan, 237. 
Arrow. See Bow. 
Arsenals, 238. 
Art among ancients, 130. 

mechanic, 155. 

medical, 154. 
Artisans, associations of, 159. 

in wood and metals, 156. 

other, 159. 
Asherah, 371. 
Ashima, 375. 
Ashtoreth, 370, 371. 
Ass, the, 116, 168. 

saddle of the, 118. 
Assonance in Hebrew, 152. 
Astrology, warnings against, 132. 
Astronomy, 130-132. 
Atonement, day of, 44, 278. 

day of, its history, 280. 
Avenger of blood, 222. 
Azazel, 279. 

Baal, names of, 370. 

priests of, 369. 

worship of, 368. 
Babel, 18. 
Babylon, 18. 
Bakers' street, 34. 
Baking, 67, 68. 
Ball-playing. See Games. , 
Ban, the, 227. 
Barber, the, 105. 
Barley, 66, 120. 

Barlev sheaf, waving of, 123, 268. 
Barter, 112. 
Bathing, 106. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



411 



Battering-ram, 252. 

Battle, preliminaries of a, 240. 

Battle-axe, 249. 

Bazaar, 34. 

Beans, 72, 121. 

Beautiful, the gate, 307. 

Bed-chamber, 22, 28. 

Bed-clothes, 27. 

Bedstead, 26. 

Beer-sheba, 35, 36. 

Bees, 70, 113. 

Bellows, 153. 

Beth-horan, 14. 

Betrothal, 44. 

Betrothed persons, intercourse between, 

45. 
" Between the two evenings," 262. 
Bezaleel, 161. 
Birds as playthings, 40. 

unclean, 78. 
Birth of children, 37. 
Birthright, the, 40. 
Bitter herbs, 72. 
Bitumen, 18. 
Bleaching, 88. 
Blessing, asking the, 81. 
Blood not to be eaten, 76. 
Body-guard, 104. 
Boiling flesh, 80. 
Book of law, 153. 
Booth, the, 11. 

the watchman's, 12. 
Booths at the feast of tabernacles, 272. 
Boots of soldiers, 95. 
Booty. See Spoil. 
Bow, "making bare" the, 246. 

the, 246. 
Bracelet, the, 100. 
" Brass," 156. 

Brazier, 26. See Chimney. 
Bread, 34, 66, 67. 

baking, 67, 68. 

leavened and unleavened, 66. 
" Bread of affliction," 267. 
" Breaking bread," 68. 
Breastplate of the high priest, 325. 
Brick making, 18. 
Brick vault, 153. 
Bricks impressed with seal, 158. 
Bridal crown, 45. 
Buffalo of the East, 112. 
Building materials, 18, 19. 
Burial, 21, 58, 61-63. 
Butter, 69. 

Cain, 11, 18. 

Calendar, adjustment of the, 137. 

Calendar of feasts, 136. 

Calf, the golden, 38, 365. 



Camel, the, 78, 114, 168. 
Camel's milk, 115. 
Cameo, writing on, 149. 
Canaanites, 43, 49, 234. 

wars with the, 235. 
Candles, 29. 

Candlestick, the golden, 293. 
Capital offences, 220-222. 
Caravan, 162. 
Caravansary, the, 30, 167. 
Carriages, wheeled, 166. 
"Cart rope," 169. 
Castanets, 143. 
Castor and Pollux, 130, 173. 
Catapult, the, 252. 
Cattle, 112. 
Caul, the, 103. 
Causeway, 34. 
Cave dwellers, 14. 

dwellings, 13-15. See Dwellings. 
Caverns, 14. 
Caves, poetic images from, 14. 

worship in, 15. 
Ceremonial defilement, 58, 62, 81. 
Ceremonially unclean, 78. 
Ceremony of drawing off the shoe, 96. 
Chaberim. See Pharisee. 
Chaff, 126. 
Chairs, 28, 29. 
Chamber, the prophet's, 22. 
Chariot horses, 251. 

the, 33, 249. 
Charms, 101. 

Chassidim (or Assidsean). See Pharisee. 
Cheating, 165. 
Cheese, 69, 159. 

Chemistry, origin of the word, 154. 
Chemosh, 371. 

identity with Molech, 372. 
Childhood, respect for, 38, 39. 
Children, 37-40, 50. 
Chimney, the, 26. 
Churning, 69. 
Circumcision, 38, 154. 
Cisterns, 35. See Water Supply. 
Cities and villages, 31, 32. 
Cities built by the Israelites, 32. 

defence of, 251-253. 

of refuge, 222. 

population of, 35. 
City, underground, 14. 
Civil government. See Government. 
Civil laws of Israel, their extent, 194. 
Clay tablets, 99, 131. 
Clepsydra, the, 135. 
Climate, 119, 124. 
Cloister, origin of the, 15. 
" Cloke," the, 90. 
Cloth for tents, 16. 



412 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Clothing, material for, 84, 86-97. 

rhetorical figures based on, 97. 
" Coat of many colors," 88. 
Colors, 87, 88. 
Combat, hand-to-hand, 241. 
Commerce, Palestine unsuited for, 162. 
Commissariat, the, 237. 
Concubinage, 48, 49. 
Concubine, the, 40, 49. 
Coney, 78. 
Contents, 5. 
Contracts, marriage, 45. 

written, 232. 
Cooking flesh, 79. 
Cooks, professional, 80. 
Copper and bronze, relative amount of, 

157. 
Cornering the market, 165. 
Cosmetic, 76, 84. 
Cotton, 87. 

Cotton and linens confounded, 87. 
Couches, 83. 

Court of the house, 21, 25. 
Courts, later Jewish, 206. 

of law, principles governing them, 
214-216. 
Courts of temple, 298, 299, 305-308. 
Cradle, 38. 
Cremation, 59. 
Crown, bridal, 45. 
Crucifixion, 221, 222. 

of Christ, 266. 
Cruelties in war, 241. 
Cultivation, mode of, 119-122. 
Cup-bearer, 85. 
Curative agents, 74, 76, 154. 
Customs connected with the shoe, 96. 

at the table, 80-83. 
Cymbals, 143. 
Cyrus and the second temple, 302. 

Dagon, 373. 

Damascus, 34. 

Dancing, 85, 142. 

Daric, the, 177. 

Daughters, 40. 

David, 12, 26, 32, 43, 64, 85, 114. 

Day, beginning of the, 135. 

Day, metaphorical use of the, 135. 

Day of Mordecai. See Puriru. 

Day-laborers, 161. 

Days of the week, 135. 

Days, lucky, 135. 

Dead, not burned, 59. 

Death and burial, 58. 

Decalogue, 24. 

Decisions, judicial, 217. 

Decoy birds, 72. 

Dedication of a house, 26. 



Dedication, feast of, 281. 

of temple, 141. 
Defence of cities, 251-253. 
Delicacies in food, 108, 111. 
Dial of Ahaz, 134. 
Diana, 376. 
Dibs, 70, 127. 

Dietary laws : reason for, 79. 
Dipping hands in the dish, 80. 
Divan, the, 20, 28, 29, 83. 
Diversions. See Games. 
Divination, 377-379. 
Diviners, kinds of, 377, 378. 
Division of the land, 229. 
Divisions of day and night, 134. 
Divorce, 46. 

reasons for, 47. 

attitude of the Bible toward, 48. 
Dog, the shepherd's, 110, 113. 
Dolls and playthings, 39. 
Domestic Antiquities, Part I., 9. 
Door, the, 23, 61. 
Door-posts inscribed, 23. 
Dough, 67. 
Dowry, the, 44. 
Drain arched, 153. 
Dress of males, 84, 86, 88-90. See Gar- 

ments, Women's Dress, Ornaments. 
Drinking habits of Israelitish women, 

84. 
Dulcimer, the, 145. 

Dwellings and their appointments, 11. 
Dwellings of Hebrews in earliest times, 
11. 

cave, 13-15. 
Dyeing the hair, 105. 

Ear-rings, 101. 

Early rain, 121. 

Earth, structure of the, 132. 

Eating, 28, 68, 80-83. 

Edersheim, 51, 63, 166, 167, 209, 270. 

Education of children, 39. 

Eggs, 76. 

Eldership, the, 189. 

Elijah, 14, 22. 

Embalming, 58, 161. 

" Encampments," 17. 

Enoch, 18. 

Ephod of the high priest, 325. 

Ephraim, tribe of, 32. 

Epicurean advice, 102. 

Essenes, the, 58, 78, 388-390. 

Ethnarch, 213. 

Excesses at feasts, 84. 

Excommunication. See Ban. 

Executions, 217. 

Exile, those returning from, 201. 

Eyelids, painting of, 105. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



413 



Family, the, 37, 59. 
Family, the, the norm of civil govern- 
ment, 187. 

Bible idea of, 37. 
Fathers' houses, 188. 
Feasts, the annual Jewish, 257-282. 
the, their relation to the agricul- 
tural year, 258. 

their relation to the Sabbath, 
258. 

prolongation of, 270. 
Feet washing, 82, 84. 
Fertilization of the ground, 119. 
Festive meals, 84. 
Fig, the, 74. 

medicinal qualities of, 74. 

tree, the barren, 75. 
Fine, the, 224. 
Finger-rings, 98. 
Fire in offerings, .339. 

passing children through, 372. 
First-born, consecration of the, 316. 

the, 40. 

the, due to the priests, 330. 
First-fruits due to the priests, 331. 

law of, 331. 
Fish and fishing, 71. 

blood of, excepted, 77. 
Flax, 86, 160. 
Flesh as food, 76-79. 

offered to idols, 78. 
Flogging, 223. 

Flour, different kinds of, 66. 
Flute, the, 110, 145. 
Flv-fans, 131. 
Fold, the, 110. 
Food of the Hebrews, 64, 76, 84, 108, 

111,112,116,126. 
Food, restrictions in, 76, 112, 115. 

sent to the bereaved, 61. 
Foot-race, 55. 
Foreign intercommunication, effect of, 

164. 
Foreigners held in slavery, 57. 
Forfeiture of property, 229. 
Fortification of cities. See Defence of 

Cities. 
Forty stripes, penalty of, 214. 
Fountain. See Water Supply. 
Fringe on the garment, 89. 
Frontlets or phylacteries, 99. 
Fruit trees, law concerning, 128. 
Fruits of Canaan, 75, 76, 126-128. 
Fuller, the, 159. 
Funerals, 58-61. 
Furnace, 26, 160. 
Furniture of the house, 26-28. 

of the tent, 16. See Tent. 

of Solomon's temple, 301. 



Gad, 375. 

Game in Palestine, 71, 72. 

Gaines and other diversions, 54. 

Greek and Eoman, 54, 102. 

public, 54. 
Gardening, 128. 
Garland, the, 102. 
Garments of males, 86, 88-90. 

names of, 88, 89, 90, 92. 
Gates of a city, 32, 131. 
Gideon's soldiers' lamp, 30. 
Girdle, the, 92, 93, 103. 
Glass, 24, 29, 102, 158. 
Gleaning, 124. 
Gloves, 96. 
Gnomon, the, 135. 
Goad, the, 122. 
Goat, the, 111. 
Golden calf, 38. 
Goldsmiths, 34. 
Government, representative, 189. 

expenses of the, 199. 

ordained of God, 187. 

after the exile, 201. 

of the temple, 310. 

in time of Judges, 191-193. 

in time of Christ, 206. 
Grain, grinding the, 65. 

exportation of, 64, 164. 

importation of, 162. 

preparations of, 64. 
Grains of Palestine, 120, 123. 
Granaries, 126. 
Grape juice, 70. 
Grapes, 126. 
Greaves, 245. 

Greek colonists in Palestine, 206. 
Green's "Hebrew Feasts," 260. 
Groats, 64. 
Groves, worship in, 15. 

burial in, 63. 
Guests, treatment of, 84. 
Guilt and its punishment associated, 

342. 
Gymnasium, 54. 

Harem, 22. 
Harlotry, 49, 50, 164. 
Hair, 16, 104. 
Hair-cloth, 16, 112. 
Hallel, the, 273. 
Hammers in war, 249. 
Hand washing, 81. 
Harbors of Israel, 170. 
Hardships in travelling, 168. 
Hare, its flesh forbidden, 78. 
Harp, the, 143, 149. 
Harrowing, 122. 
Harvest, time of; 121. 



414 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Harvest, feast of, 268. See Feasts. 

Harvesting, 123. 

Hauran, meaning of, 13. 

Havoth, 31. 

Heavenly bodies, the, 130. 

Hebrew language, development of, 150. 

Hebrew poetry, 151, 152. 

Hebrew writing, 149. 

Hebrews, 11. 

Hedge, 31. 

Helmet, the, 243. 

Hens, 113. 

Herbs, the bitter, 264. 

Herder, 152. 

Herod, the temple of, 304-310. 

Herodotus, 18, 90, 98. 

Herods, the, 204. 

Hezekiah, 17, 85. 

High places, 366. 

worship at, 367. 
High priest, the, 320, 327. 

dress of, 323, 327. 

the second, 328. 
Highway, 166, 167. 
Hiram of Tyre, 163. 
Holy of holies, 289. 

vacant space over the, 300. 
Homer, 118. 
Honey, 70. 
Horites, 13. 
Horn, the, 146. 
Horns of sheep, 109. 
Horonaim, 14. 
Horse, the, 113, 168. 

in battle, 236, 237. 

trappings of, 114. 
Horseback riding, 113. 

posture in, 114. 
Hosea, 68, 98. 
" Hosen," 90. 
Hospitality, 52, 84. 
Hour, the, 134. 
Hours of prayer, 135. 
House, 11, 18, 22. 
Humanity of the Mosaic laws, 233. 

of Israel in war, 242. 
Hunting, 72, 116. 
Husbandry, pursuit of, 118, 121, 163, 

228. 
Husks, 73. 

Idolatrous worship, 15, 25. 

practices, 73, 78, 104, 112, 114, 132. 
Idolatry, origin of, 363. 
Idols, destruction of, 234. 

clothing of, 88. 
Imprisonment, 226. 
Incest, 42. 
Infantry, the Hebrew, 236. 



Ingathering, feast of, 271. See Taber- 
nacles. 
Inheritance, the law of, 40. 
Ink for writing, 150. 
Ink-horn, 93. 
Inn, 30. 

Installation of the king, 196. 
Instruments of music, 139, 142, 147. 
Interest, rates of, 179. 
interment. See Death and Burial. 
Intoxicating drinks, 73, 74. 
" Iron from the north," 157. 
Irrigation, 119. 
Isaiah, 13, 15, 17, 19, 30. 
Israel as a nation of priests, 315. 

.label, 11. 

" Jachin" and " Boaz," 296. 

Jacob, 12, 27. 

Jaffa Gate, 33. 

Javelin, 249. 

Jealousy, trial in case of, 217. 

Jehoshaphat, court established by, 
212. 

Jeremiah, 34. 

Jewelry, 98, 101. 

Job, 12, 14, 19, 29, 40, 58, 66, 76, 117, 
132 157. 

Joseph us,' 32, 34, 35, 57, 58, 60, 76, 82, 
87, 104, 105, 120, 123, 137, 138, 144, 
147, 159, 165, 167, 170, 173, 203, 213, 
216, 225, 243, 248, 262, 265, 271, 
281, 282, 286, 287, 293, 294, 296, 300, 
302, 303, 304, 307-310, 320, 322, 323, 
325-327, 330, 341. 

Joshua, civil position of, 191, 192. 
as leader of Israel, 192. 

Journeving by water, 170. 

Jubilee, year of, 56, 146, 230. 

Judaism, unfavorable to sects, 380. 

Judges, their province, 192. 
period of the, 192. 

Jupiter, 375, 376. 

Justice, administration of, 33, 210-233. 

" Kerchiefs," 92. 

Key, door, 23. 

Khan, 30, 167. See Caravansary. 

Kid, how to be cooked, 111. 

King, the, subject to law, 197. 

function of, 197. 

income of, 198. 

law of, genuine, 195. 
Kingdom, the, 195. 
Kingdoms of Judah and Israel, fall of, 

201. 
Kinzler's "Altertiimer," 150. 
Knife, the, 150. 
Knocker, door, 23. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



415 



Labor, honor paid to, 119, 155, 159, 161. 

Lamb of God, 109. 

Lambs, 108. 

Lamech, 41. 

Lamp, the, 29. 

Lamp of tabernacle, 29. 

Land, God the proprietor of, 229, 231. 

adjacent to Levitical cities, 333. 

value of, how reckoned, 230, 231. 
Landmarks, removal of, 118, 232. 
Lands inalienable, 229. 
Language, the Hebrew, 148. 
Languages of the Bible, 148. 
Last supper, 22. 
Latter rain. See Early Rain. 
Laver, the, 286. 
Law, book or roll, 153. 
Laws of the earliest period, 193. 
Layard, 101. 

Laying hands on the sacrifice, 338. 
Leaven, 70, 337. 
Leavened bread. See Unleavened 

Bread. 
Legal processes, earlier, 210. 
Lentils, 121. 

Levi, tribe of, 35, 38, 140, 316. 
Levirate marriage, 42, 96. 
Levites, duties of, 321. 

position of, 192. 
Levitical priesthood, not a natural de- 
velopment, 333. 
Lex talionis, the, 219, 223. 
Linen, 86. See Cotton. 
Literature of Biblical Antiquities, 8. 

Litter, the. See Palanquin. 

Livingstone, Dr., referred to, 103. 

Locks and keys, 23. 

Locusts, 70. 

Lodge, the, 13. 

Lodging-place, 30. 

Loom, 158. 

Lot, 14, 52. 

Lots, casting, 217. 

Lotus, the, 128. 

Lowth, Dr., 152. 

Luxurious customs, 84, 88, 102. 

Maccabees, the, 62, 133, 144, 204. 
Macedonian calendar, 137. 
Magical arts, 377-379. 
Mahanaim, gates of, 32. 
Malachi, 47. 

Market-places, 33, 70, 71, 164. 
Marriage, 40-50. 

among relatives, 42. 

bond, sanctity of, 46. 

contracts, 45. 

customs, 96. 

degeneration of, 41. 



Marriage of priests, 43. 

with a divorced wife, 43. 

with a brother's widow, 42. 

with Canaanites, 43. 
Marriages prohibited, 42, 43. 
Master of ceremonies, 84. See Sym- 

posiarch. 
Materials for clothing, 86. 
Mathematics, 132, 133. 
Meal offering, 70, 75. 
Meals, 64, 80, 82. 

festive, 84. * 

posture at, 28, 29, 82. 

prayer at, 81. 

time of, 82. 
Measures of length, 181. 

examination of, 165. 

of distance, 181. 

of liquid, 182. 
Mechanic arts, 155. 
Medical art, the, 154. 
Medicine, use of, favored, 154. 
Med, the, 90. 
Men, occupations of, 107. 
Meni, 375. 
Mercenaries, 238. 
Merchants, 34, 71, 165. 
Mercury, 375, 376. 
Mercy-seat. See Ark. 
Metals, 156. 

workers in, 157. 
Metaphors, 30, 34, 35, 37, 54, 67, 97, 98, 

107, 108, 111, 114, 129. 
Midwifery, 37, 154. 
Military campaigns, how introduced, 

237. 
Milk, 69, 109, 112, 115, 118. 
Millet, 66, 120. 
Mills for grinding grain, 65, 118. 

noise of, 66. 
Millstone, pledging the, 65. 

the nether, 66. 
Mincing, 103. 
Mining, 157. 
Mirrors, 102. 

Mixed stuffs for clothing forbidden, 87. 
Moabite Stone, 35, 133, 148, 149. 
Molech, 369. 
Money, ancient, 112, 174, 176. 

changers, 179. 

coined, 177. 

value of, by weight, 104, 162, 175. 

relative value of, 178. 
Monogamy, 41. 
Monotheism, 363. 
Month, the, 136. 

names of, 136. 

solar and lunar, 137. 

day of, how reckoned, 137. 



416 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Moon, feast of the new, 146, 275. 

the new, arrangements for observ- 
ing, 146, 276. 
Mortar and pestle, 65. 
Mosaic laws, practicability of, 194. 
Moses, 43, 191. 

civil position of, 191. 
Mosquito-net, 27. 
Mothers in Israel, 39. 
Mourning, 60. 
Muffler, 92. 
Mule, the, 116. 
Muleteer, the, 116. 
Mummy, exhibition of, 84. 
Music, 110, 139. 

cultivation of, 141. 

not enjoined in the Pentateuch, 140. 

of the temple, 140. 
Music and dancing, 85, 142. 
Musical notes, 142. 

Nahum, 18. 

Navigation in New Testament times, 

173. 
Nay, the, 145. 
Nazarite, the, 104, 360-362. 

was Paul a, 362. 
Nebo, 374. 
Necklace, 100. 
Nehemiah, 43, 77, 85. 
Nehushtan, 367. 
Nergal, 375. 
Nets, 71. 

New moon. See Moon. 
Nibhaz, 375. 
Nicanor's day, 281. 
Night watches, 134. 
Nilometer, 160. 
Nineveh, 18. 
Noah, 41. 

Nomad and citizen, 11. 
Nose-ring, 101. 
Numbers, 132, 133. 
Nursing of children, 38. 
Nuts, 76. 

Oaths, civil, 216. 

Obadiah, 14. 

Occupations of men, the earliest, 107. 

" Odd and even." See Games. 

Offering for the dead, 61. 

Offering, 108. See Sacrifice. 

the burnt, 340. 

the thank (peace), 341. 

the sin, 342-344. 

the trespass, 345, 346. 

the vegetable. See Vegetable. 

Offerings at feast of unleavened bread 

and other feasts, 267-272. 



Offerings shared with priests, 332. 

of Cain and Abel, 335. 

birds as, 340. 

most holy, 342. 
Officers. See Shoterim. 

of the synagogue, 312. 
Oil, 29, 75. 
Olive, the, 127. 
Olive-mill, the, 128. 
Orchestra of the temple, 140. 
Organ, the, 146. 
Orion, 130. 
Ornament, 84, 86, 89, 92, 94, 97, 98, 99, 

100, 102-105. 
Ovens, 68. 
Ownership of land, 229. 

Padan-aram, 12. 
Paint, 105. 
Palanquin, the, 169. 
Palestine, soil of, 35, 122. 

Exploration Fund, 14. 
Palm, the date, 75. 
Papyrus, 99, 150. 
Parallelism, 152. 
Parched grain, 64. 
Parchment, 151. 
Parental training, 38, 39, 155. 
Park. See Gardening. 
Parlor, 21. 

Part I., Domestic Antiquities, 9. 
Partners, who might be, 165. 
Paschal con tro vers y, 264. 
Passover, the, 137, 260-264. 
Pastoral and pastorale, 107, 110. 
Paternal love, 38. 
Patriarchal times, 14, 40, 41. 

government, etc., 187. 
Paul, 16, 17, 34, 48, 167, 205. 
Pavement, 34, 167. 
Pavilion, 16. 
Peddlers, 164. 
Pen, the, 150. 

Penalties, judicial, 217, 221. 
Pendants. See Nose-ring. 
Pentecost. See Feast of Weeks. 
Perfumery, 103. 
Personal responsibility, 219. 
Pestle and mortar, 65. 
Peter, 25, 205. 

Pharisee, the, 33, 41, 47, 64, 67, 81, 100, 
384. 

and Sadducee, 67, 385, 388. 
Philistines, 14. 
Philo, 56, 58. 

Phylactery, 99. See Frontlets. 
Physicians, 154. 
Pigments, 105, 106. 
Pilate, Pontius, 205. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



417 



Pillars in court of tabernacle, how 

placed, 285. 
Pillow, the, 27. 
Pipe, the, 146. See Organ. 
Pistachio, 76. See Nuts. 
Pithom, 19. 

Plants producing pods, 121. 
Plato, 161. 
Play. See Games. 
Playthings of children, 39. 
Pleiades, the, 130. 
Plough, the, 121. 

Poetic images, 14, 17, 34, 35, 37, 106. 
Poetry, Hebrew, 151. 
" Polling" the hair. See Hair. 
Poll-tax, 208. 
Polygamy, 41. 
Pomegranate, the, 75. 
Pompeii, 34, 68. 
Population, 35, 39. 
Porch, 20, 21. 
Portion of poor, etc., 124. 
Potter, 61, 153, 159. 
Prayer, forms of, 351. 
Preface, 3. 
Priest, the anointed, 318. 

of family, 40. 

duties of the, 319. 

dress of the, 86, 88, 94, 321-325. 

marriage of, 43. 

the, accompanying the army, 236. 

widow of, 43. 

and prophet, 334. 
Priesthood, the Israelitish, 315. 

consecration of the, 317, 318. 

perquisites of the, 329. 

requirements and rights of the, 
317. 
Priests after the exile, 321, 333. 

and Levites, classes of, 320. 

and Levites, maintenance of, 328. 

duties of, 319. 
Prisoners, garb of, 216. 

treatment of, 241. 
Prisons, kinds of, 226. 
Property, how transferred, 232. 

forfeiture of, 229. 

laws concerning, 228. 

security of, 232. 

what it consisted of, 107, 117, 118, 
156. 
Prophets, influence of, 197, 198. 
Proselyte, conditions for a, 394. 

baptism, 395. 

of righteousness, 394. 
Proselytes, their number, 391-393. 

their relation to Judaism, 393. 
Proseuchce, 311, 392. 
Prostitution, laws concerning, 50. 

27 



Psalms, headings of, 141. 
Psaltery, 140, 143. 
Publicani, 208. 
Purification, ceremonial, 353. 

moral ends of, 353. 

relation to cleanliness, 353. 

by means of the ashes of a red hei- 
fer, 354. 

from leprosy, 355-357. 

from morbid fluxes, 357. 

in the case of childbirth, 358. 
Purim, 280. 
"Purple robe," 89. 
Purse, the, 103. 
Pyrgos, 13. 

Quack, the, 155. 
Quince, 75. 
Quiver. See Bow. 

Eabbinical law, 45, 59, 61, 77, 123, 155, 
165. 

story, 63. 
Races of western Asia, 11. 
Earn, 119, 121. 
Raisin-cakes, 73. 
Raisins as food, 73, 126. 
Rams with many horns, 109. 
Rank, distinction of, 51. 
Real estate in walled towns, 231. 
Reckoning, 132-134. 
Records of the past, 233. 
Redemption of a consecrated object, 360. 

money, 38. 
Remphan, 374. 
Rending the garment, 60. 
Restitution, law of, 225. 
Restoration of things lost, 232. 
Revenue, 199. 

Rhythm in Hebrew poetry, 152. 
Riddles, 54. 
Rimmon, 373. 
Ring, the, in betrothal, 44. 
Ritual laws, the, 79. 
Roads in Palestine, 34, 166, 167. 
Rod, passing under the, 110. 
Roll of laws, 153. 
Roman army. See Army. 

citizenship, 205. 

guard, 240. 
Roof, the, 20, 21, 24. 

use of the, 25. 

leaky, 25. 
" Rooms,"— couches, 20, 83. 
Rooms, the upper, 21. 

of a dwelling, 21. 
Royal body-guard, 200. 

prerogatives, 197. 

exactions, 198. 



418 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Eoyal household, 199. 
Rulers, duties of, 210. 

Sabbath, the, 119, 259. 

use of the term, 268. 

-day's journey, 181. 
Sabbatic year, the, 119. 
Sackbut, 145. 
Sackcloth, 60. 
Sacred meals, 331, 341. 
Sacrifice, origin of, 335. See Offering. 

the daily, 350. 
Sacrifices, animal, how presented, 337. 

classes and material of, 336. 

to be from one's own property, 337. 

different kinds of, 108, 339. 

Levitical, how far a natural de- 
velopment, 351. 

of the high priest, 352. 

not antagonized by the prophets, 
352. 

the blood of the animal, 338. 
Saddle of the camel, 115. 

of the ass, 118. 
Sadducee, the, 67, 385. See Pharisee. 
Salt, 76. 
Salt-wort, 72. 
Salutations, 53. 
Samaria, 32. 
Samaritanism, 380. 
Samaritans, belief of, 381. 

language and literature of the, 382. 
Sanctuaries of Israel, 284. 
Sandals, 94, 115. 
Sanhedrin, the Great, 207. 
Sanitary considerations, 79. 
Sarcophagi, 62. 
Satchels, 103. See Purse. 
Saturn, 132. 
Scent-bottles, 103. 
Schools, 39. 

Science among the ancients, 130. 
Scourging, 224. See Flogging. 
Scribe, the, 382. 

in the New Testament, 383. 
Scrip, the, 110. 
Seal, the, 99, 149. 
Seal or porpoise skins, 95. 
Sealing of tombs, etc., 62, 99. 
Seasons, the, in Palestine, 121. 

sacred, 257-281. 

sacred, scheme of the, 260. 
Seed, methods of sowing, 123. 
Sepulchre, 61. See Tomb. 
Sermon on the mount, 20. 
Serpent, the brazen, 367. 
Servants, 55.* 

Seven, significance of the number, 260. 
Shaving, 104. 



Sheaf of new grain, 123. 
Sheep, rearing of, 107, 163. 

the broad-tailed, 108. 
Sheepfold, 110, 111. 
Shekel, the, 176, 177. 
Shepherd, the, 109. 
Shew-bread, table of, 28, 292. 
Shield, the, 242. 
Shields "made red," 243. 
Ships, 163, 173, 174. 
Shoes, taking off, 95. 
Shoe-latchet, 94. 
Shoterim, 190. 
Sickle, 123. 
Siege, the, 251. 
Sieges, long, 116, 252. 
Sifting grain, 125. 
Signet-rings, 98. 
Silk, 87. 

Simon the Maccabee, 203. 
Siphons, 131. 

Sirach, son of, 69, 100, 139, 154. 
Sitting posture, 28. 

Skin-bottles, 115, 127. See Wine-skins. 
Skins of animals, 86, 95, 109, 115, 151. 

See Writing Materials. 
Slaughter of animals for sacrifice, 338. 
Slave-markets, 57. 
Slavery, 49, 56, 162. 

limitation of, 56. 

spirit of Mosaic laws concerning, 
57. 

according to the Essenes, 58. 
Slaves, fugitive, 57. 
Sleeping-rooms, 27. 
Sling,the, 248. 
Smelting-furnaces, etc., 157. 
Smiths, none in Israel, 155. 
Social life, 52. 
Soda, mineral (natron), 157. 
Sodomy, 50. 
Soil, 35, 64, 118, 122. 
Solomon's pool, 35. 

porch, 306. 
Sowing, 122. 

two kinds of seed together, 123. 
Spear, the, 249. 
Spectators, at meals, 85. 
Spindles, 158. 
Spoil, division of the, 238. 
Spontaneous growth, 119. 
Staff, 97, 110. 
Staves as weapons, 249. 
Stocks, the, 227. 
Stone, building, 19. 
Stool, 28. 

Strange women, 164. 
Streets, 32, 34, 159. 
Stringed instruments, 143. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



419 



Strong drink, 73. 

Structure of the earth, 132. 

Sublime Porte, 34. 

Succession, law of, 197. 

Succoth, 12, 147. 

Succoth-benoth, 375. 

Summer parlor, 21. 

Sun images, 369. 

Swaddling-clothes, 37. 

Swine, 78. 

Sword, the, 93, 248. 

Svmposiarch, 84. 

Synagogue, the, 39, 141, 203, 310-313. 

Syrup from grapes, 126. 

Tabernacle, the, 16, 157, 284-286. 

historical reality of the, 157, 294. 

changes in the, 295. 

covering of the, 289. 
Tabernacles, feast of, 271. 

history of the feast of, 273. 

feast of, after the exile, 274. 
Table, the, 28. 
Table customs, 80-85. 
Tables of weights, measures and dis- 
tances, 182. 
Tacitus, 38, 148. 
Talmud, 43, 44, 45, 75, 77, 92, 96, 99, 

100, 105, 135, 159, 165, 304. 
Tammuz, 372. 
Tartak, 375. 
Tattooing, 106. 
Tax-gatherers, 208, 209. 
Tear-bottles, 60. 
Temple of Herod, 304-310. - 

of Solomon, 16, 107, 157, 296-302. 

of Zerubbabel, 302-304. 

singers, 140. 
Tent, the, 11, 15. 

material and size of, 16. 

furniture of, 16. 
Tent of meeting. See Tabernacle. 
Tent-life, figurative use of, 17. 
Tent-pin, 17. 
Teraphim, 98, 364. 
Testament or will, 40. 
" Testimony," the, 196. 
Therapeuta?, 391. 

" Thousand," use of the term, 190. 
Threshing, 124. 
Throne, 28. 
Tiles, 25. 
Tillage, 118. 
Timbrel, the, 142. 
Time, expressions for, 133. 
Tithe, application of the, 328. 

the law criticised, 329. 

the second, 329. 

the third, 330. 



Tithes. See Vegetable Offerings. 

Toll-roads, 166. 

Tombs, 61. 

Torch, the, 29, 30. 

Tow, 87. 

Tower, the, 13. 

of the flock, 111. 
Trade, learning a, 155. 
Trader, the, 162. 
Traders, Phoenician, 164. 
Trades, 156. 
Trading, 112, 162, 165. 

laws of, 165. 

company, royal, 164. 
Train, the, 91. 

Trappings of horses, 109, 114, 251. 
Travelling, 166, 168. 
Trial, place of, 215. 
Triangle, the, 143. 

Tribal relations of Israel in Egypt, 188. 
Tribute, 108, 208. 
Triclinium, the, S3. 
Troglodytes, 13. 
Trumpet, the, 146. 
Turban, the, 93. 
Turkish letter, 149. 

Unchastity, different forms of, 49. 
Unclean animals, 78. 
Underground city. See City. 
Unicorn, the, 113. 
Unleavened bread, 267. 

feast of, 267. 
Unseemly thing as basis of divorce, 47. 
Upper room, 21, 22. 
Urim and Thummim, 237, 326. 
Usury, 179. See Interest, rates of. 

Van Lennep, 22, 30, 38, 144, 170. 
Vegetable offering, 347. 

two classes of, 348, 349. 

materials of, 350. 
Vegetables, 72. 

were boiled, 80. 
Veil, the, 91, 101. 
Venus as "morning star," 130. 
Vessel, the ancient merchant, 163, 172. 
Vessels, rig of, 174. 
Villages, 17. See Encampments. 

See Cities, 31. 
Vine, the, and its products, 73. 
Vinegar, 69, 73. 
Vineyards, 124, 126, 127. 

renting of, 127. 
Viol, the, 144. 

Vowed, what might be, 359. 
Vows, not enjoined, 359. 

treated incidentally, 359. 

religious, two classes of, 358. 



420 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Wages for a day's work, 179. 
Wagons, 168. 
Walls of cities, 31. 

defence of, 252. 
Walnut trees, 76. 
War among the Hebrews, 234. 
War-chariots, 237, 239. 
Wardrobe, keeper of the, 97. 
Warfare, methods of, 252. 
Washings, ceremonial, 81. 
Watches, 134. See Night Watches. 
Watchman's lodge, 13. 
Water-bottles, 115. 
Water-clock, 135. 
Water-supply of cities, 35. 
Wave offering, the sheaf of barley, 

268. 
Waving and heaving an offering, 338. 
Weapons, 242. 
Weaving, 159. 
Wedding festivities, 45. 
Wedge of gold, the, 175. 
Week, the, 135. 
Weeks, feast of, 268. 
Weighing, means of, 179. 

money, 104, 175. 
Weights, demand for just, 180. 

examination of, 165. 
Wells, 35, 167. 
Wetzstein, Dr., 14. 
Wheat, Egyptian, 120. 
Whiting of sepulchres, 62. 
Wick for lamp, 29. 
Wife and concubine, 49. 



Wigs, wearing of, 104. 
Wild beasts, 72. 
Wild ox, 113. 
Will, the testament, 40. 
Wind instruments, 145 
Windows, 24. 
Wine-making, 126. 
Wine-press, 127. 

-skins, 115, 127. 

warning against, 74. 
Wines, intoxicating, 74. 

sour, 69, 73. 
Winnowing, 125. 
Witness, position of the, 216, 221. 

the unrighteous, 210. 
Woman's dress, 87, 90, 92, 101. 
Women, 92, 95, 102. 

influence of, 50. 

occupations, etc., of, 50, 59, 85, 91. 

social position of Hebrew, 50, 84. 
Wool, 86. 

Wreaths of flowers, 102. 
Writing, materials for, 150. 

the art of, 147, 148. 

Xerxes, 22. 

Year, the, 138. 
Yoke, the, 119, 122. 

Zacchseus, case of, 225. 
Zechariah, 39. 
Zeus. See Jupiter. 
Zodiac, signs of the, 131, 132. 








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